Opioids & Opioid Addiction Treatment Education

Professional practice gaps exist when there is a disparity between educational needs and the ideal or desired level of knowledge, competence, and performance. Only around 6% of U.S. physicians are waivered to prescribe buprenorphine for office-based treatment of opioid use disorder (SAMHSA, 2017). Physicians are likely to encounter patients having this disorder due to the size of the opioid epidemic: 11.8 million people aged 12 or older engage in misuse of pain relievers (SAMHSA, 2017). Many people who need treatment are still not receiving it (SAMHSA, 2016). Federal law requires physicians to complete an 8-hour training in order to prescribe buprenorphine (CARA, 2016; DATA, 2000). Providing physician this training will prepare them to treat the many patients having opioid use disorder.

Buprenorphine is a safe and effective treatment for opioid use disorder for which 8 hours of training by an approved organization is required by law in order to prescribe it (SAMHSA, 2004; SAMHSA, 2016). Providing information on all aspects of buprenorphine treatment will help address this knowledge need. Moreover, buprenorphine treatment has a complex protocol that must be followed for successful outcomes and to minimize risks of overdose, death, and persion (FSMB, 2013), which validates the need for mandatory training in order to prescribe it. Understanding of clinical protocol and how to apply it will help address this competence need. Lastly, despite the demonstrated effectiveness of buprenorphine, a relatively small percentage (3%) of U.S. physicians are trained and credentialed to prescribe it (NAABT, 2017). Experience with interactive case scenarios helps address the performance need of translating competence in following the protocol into actual practice.

Practice Gap References

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Use of Medications in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use. American Society of Addiction Medicine. June 1, 2015. Available at: http://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/practice-support/guidelines-and-consensus-docs/asam-national-practice-guideline-supplement1b630f9472bc604ca5b7ff000030b21a.pdf?sfvrsn=0 Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

CDC. Opioid Data Analysis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2016. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/analysis.html Accessed on: 2017-03-27.

Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain — United States, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016; ePub: March 2016: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1er. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/rr/rr6501e1.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-16.

FSMB. Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office. FSMB Website http://www.fsmb.org. 2013. Available at: https://www.fsmb.org/Media/Default/PDF/FSMB/Advocacy/2013_model_policy_treatment_opioid_addiction.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-11.

Hughes A, Williams MR, Lipari RN, et al. Prescription Drug Use and Misuse in the United States: Results from the 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. SAMHSA. 2016. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-FFR2-2015/NSDUH-FFR2-2015.htm Accessed on: 2016-09-13.

NAABT. The National Alliance of Advocates for Buprenorphine Treatment. NAABT The National Alliance of Advocates for Buprenorphine Treatment. 2017. Available at: https://www.naabt.org/tl/buprenorphine-suboxone-treatment.cfm Accessed on: 2018-02-23.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. Rockville, Md: Center For Substance Abuse Treatment. Treatment Improvement Protocol Series, No. 40, USDHHS Publication (SMA) 04-3939. 2004b. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64245/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2016 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings . NSDUH Series H-52. 2017; HHS Publication No. SMA 17-5044: . Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/topics/data_outcomes_quality/nsduh-ppt-09-2017.pdf Accessed on: 2018-02-20.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Advisory. Winter 2016; 15 (1): . Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//SMA16-4938/SMA16-4938.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-05.

U.S. House of Representatives. Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act of 2016. docs.house.gov. 2016. Available at: http://docs.house.gov/billsthisweek/20160704/CRPT-114HRPT-S524.pdf Accessed on: 2016-11-17.

United States Congress. Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000. United States Congress. 2000. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/pubs/docs/dwp_buprenorphine.htm Accessed on: 2011-06-29.

Professional practice gaps exist when there is a disparity between educational needs and the ideal or desired level of knowledge, competence, and performance. Only around 6% of U.S. physicians are waivered to prescribe buprenorphine for office-based treatment of opioid use disorder (SAMHSA, 2017). Physicians are likely to encounter patients having this disorder due to the size of the opioid epidemic: 11.8 million people aged 12 or older engage in misuse of pain relievers (SAMHSA, 2017). Many people who need treatment are still not receiving it (SAMHSA, 2016). Federal law requires physicians to complete an 8-hour training in order to prescribe buprenorphine (CARA, 2016; DATA, 2000). Providing physician this training will prepare them to treat the many patients having opioid use disorder.

Buprenorphine is a safe and effective treatment for opioid use disorder for which 8 hours of training by an approved organization is required by law in order to prescribe it (SAMHSA, 2004; SAMHSA, 2016). Providing information on all aspects of buprenorphine treatment will help address this knowledge need. Moreover, buprenorphine treatment has a complex protocol that must be followed for successful outcomes and to minimize risks of overdose, death, and diversion (FSMB, 2013), which validates the need for mandatory training in order to prescribe it. Understanding of clinical protocol and how to apply it will help address this competence need. Lastly, despite the demonstrated effectiveness of buprenorphine, a relatively small percentage (3%) of U.S. physicians are trained and credentialed to prescribe it (NAABT, 2017). Experience with interactive case scenarios helps address the performance need of translating competence in following the protocol into actual practice.

Practice Gap References

AAPI. Use of Opioids for the Treatment of Chronic Pain, A statement from the American Academy of Pain Medicine. The American Academy of Chronic Pain. 2013. Available at: http://www.painmed.org/files/use-of-opioids-for-the-treatment-of-chronic-pain.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Adams et al. Development of a self-report screening instrument for assessing potential opioid medication misuse in chronic pain patients. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2004; 27: 440-459. Available at: http://www.jpsmjournal.com/article/S0885-3924(04)00101-0/abstract Accessed 02/14/2019.

Adams LL, Gatchel RJ, Robinson RC, et al. Development of a self-report screening instrument for assessing potential opioid medication misuse in chronic pain patients. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2004; 27: 440-459. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15120773 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Agency Medical Directors’ Group. Interagency Guideline on Opioid Dosing for Chronic Non-cancer Pain: An educational aid to improve care and safety with opioid therapy. Washington State Agency Medical Directors Group. 2010. Available at: http://www.agencymeddirectors.wa.gov/Files/OpioidGdline.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Aggarwal A, Kumar R, Sharma RC, Sharma DD. Persistent dystonia following opioid withdrawal. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry. 2011; 35(2): 640. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20685372 Accessed 02/14/2019.

AMA. Promote safe storage and disposal of opioids and all medications. AMA-ASSN.org. 2017. Available at: https://www.aafp.org/dam/AAFP/documents/patient_care/pain_management/safe-storage.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

American Academy of Pain Medicine, American Pain Society and American Society of Addiction Medicine. Definitions related to the use of opioids for the treatment of pain. 2001. Available at: https://www.asam.org/advocacy/find-a-policy-statement/view-policy-statement/public-policy-statements/2011/12/15/definitions-related-to-the-use-of-opioids-for-the-treatment-of-pain-consensus-statement Accessed 02/14/2019.

American Academy of Pain Medicine. Long-term Controlled Substances Therapy for Chronic Pain Sample Agreement. American Academy of Pain Medicine. 2001. Available at: https://www.nhms.org/sites/default/files/Pdfs/Opioid-Tx-Agreement-AAPM2001.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

American Geriatrics Society. Pharmacological management of persistent pain in older persons. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 2009; 57(8): 1331-1346. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19573219 Accessed 02/14/2019.

American Pain Foundation. Target Chronic Pain Notebook. American Pain Foundation. 2004; updated 2008. Available at: http://www.emergingsolutionsinpain.com/content/tools/apf_resources/TargetCard.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

American Psychiatric Association (APA). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. American Psychiatric Association. 5th ed. 2013. Available at: https://www.amazon.com/Diagnostic-Statistical-Manual-Mental-Disorders/dp/0890425558/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1492003452&sr=1-1&keywords=dsm+5 Accessed 02/14/2019.

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). American Psychiatric Association. 2013; 5. Available at: http://www.appi.org/products/dsm-manual-of-mental-disorders Accessed 02/14/2019.

American Psychological Association. Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9 & PHQ-2). APA.com. 2013. Available at: http://www.apa.org/pi/about/publications/caregivers/practice-settings/assessment/tools/patient-health.aspx Accessed 02/14/2019.

Antoin H, Beasley RD. Opioids for chronic noncancer pain: tailoring the therapy to fit the patient and the pain. Postgrad Med. 2004; 116(3): 37-40, 43-44. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15460088 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Avouac J, Gossec L, Dougados M. Efficacy and safety of opioids for osteoarthritis: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2007; 15(8): 957-65.

Bair MJ, Polshuck EL, Wu J, Krebs EK, Damush TM, Tu W, Kroenke K. Anxiety but not social stressors predict 12-month depression and pain severity. The Clinical Journal of Pain. 2013; 29: 95-101. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23183264 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Banta-Green CJ, Merrill JO, Doyle SR, Boudreau DM, Calsyn DA. Opioid use behaviors, mental health and pain-development of a typology of chronic pain patients. Drug Alcohol Depend. In Press Epub. 2009. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2716214/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Belgrade MJ, Schamber CD, Lindgren BR . The DIRE score: predicting outcomes of opioid prescribing for chronic pain. J Pain. 2006; 7: 671-81. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16942953 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Bennetto L, Patel NK, Fuller G. Trigeminal neuralgia and its management. BMJ. 2007; 334: 201-205. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1782012/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Benyamin R, et al. Opioid Complications and Side Effects. Pain Physician. 2008; 11: 105-120. Available at: http://www.painphysicianjournal.com Accessed 02/14/2019.

Berland, D, Rodgers P. Use of opioids for management of chronic nonterminal pain. Am Fam Physician. 2012; 86(3): 252-258. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2012/0801/p252.html Accessed 02/14/2019.

BMJ Publishing Group. Opioid overdose. http://bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/verify-user-north-american-access.html. 2011; October 27. Available at: http://bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/monograph/339/treatment/step-by-step.html Accessed 02/14/2019.

Boscarino JA, Rukstalis MR, Hoffman SN, et al. Prevalence of prescription opioid-use disorder among chronic pain patients: comparison of the DSM-5 vs. DSM-4 diagnostic criteria. J Addict Dis. 2011; 30(3): 185-94. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21745041 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Briley M, Moret C. Treatment of comorbid pain with serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors. CNS Spectr. 2008; 13(7): 22-26.

Brown KS. Integrating Risk Assessment in Opioid Prescribing for Persistent Pain Management. Integrative Pain Center, Tripler Army Medical Center. 2009. Available at: https://division-rehabpsych.squarespace.com/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Brown RL, Rounds LA. Conjoint screening questionnaires for alcohol and other drug abuse: criterion validity in a primary care practice. Wis Med J. 1995; 94: 135-40. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7778330 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Butler SF , Budman SH, Fernandez KC, et al. Cross-validation of a screener to predict opioid misuse in chronic pain patients (SOAPP-R). J Addict Med . 2010. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2712300/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Butler SF, Budman SH, Fernandez KC, et al. Development and validation of the current opioid misuse measure. Pain. 2007; 130(1-2): 144-156. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1950245/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Butler SF, Fernandez K, Benoit C, et al. Validation of the Revised Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients in Pain (SOAPP-R). J Pain. 2008; 9: 360-372.

Califano, JA et al. Under the Counter: The Diversion and Abuse of Controlled Prescription Drugs in the U.S. The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University. 2005. Available at: http://www.centeronaddiction.org/addiction-research/reports/under-the-counter-diversion-abuse-controlled-perscription-drugs Accessed 02/14/2019.

CASA. National Survey of American Attitudes on Substance Abuse XIII: Teens and Parents. National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse. 2008. Available at: http://www.centeronaddiction.org/addiction-research/reports/national-survey-american-attitudes-substance-abuse-teens-parents-2008 Accessed 02/14/2019.

CDC. Unintentional Drug Poisoning in the United States . CDC. 2010; July. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5605a1.htm Accessed 02/14/2019.

Center for Disease Control. Prescription Painkiller Overdoses, Use and Abuse of Methadone as a Painkiller. CDC Vital Signs. 2012. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/vitalsigns/MethadoneOverdoses/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Chabal C, Erjavec MK, Jacobson L, Mariano A, Chaney E. Prescription opiate abuse in chronic pain patients: clinical criteria, incidence and predictors. Clin J Pain. 1997; 13(2): 150-155. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9186022 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Chan B, Tam LK, Wat CY, et al. Opioids in chronic non-cancer pain. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy. 2011; 12(5): 705-720. Available at: http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.1517/14656566.2011.536335?journalCode=eop Accessed 02/14/2019.

Chou R, Ballantyne J, Fanciullo G, et al. Research Gaps on Use of Opioids for Chronic Noncancer Pain: Findings From a Review of the Evidence for an American Pain Society and American Academy of Pain Medicine Clinical Practice Guideline. J Pain. 2009b; 10(2): 147-159.

Chou R, Fanciullo G, Fine P, et al. Clinical guidelines for the use of chronic opioid therapy in chronic noncancer pain. J Pain. 2009; 10(2): 113-130. Available at: http://www.jpain.org/article/S1526-5900(08)00831-6/abstract Accessed 02/14/2019.

Chou R, Fanciullo GJ, Fine PG, et al. Opioids for chronic noncancer pain: prediction and identification of aberrant drug-related behaviors: a review of evidence for an American Pain Society and American Academy of Pain Medicine Clinical Practice Guideline. J Pain. 2009a; 10(2): 131-146. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19187890 Accessed 02/14/2019.

CMS. Calendar Year (CY) 2016 Clinical Laboratory Fee Schedule (CLFS) Preliminary Determinations. 2016. Available at: https://www.cms.gov/Medicare/Medicare-Fee-for-Service-Payment/ClinicalLabFeeSched/Downloads/CY2017-CLFS-Codes-Prelim-Determinations.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Cole, BE. Recognizing and Preventing Medication Diversion. Family Practice Management. 2001; 8(9): 37-41. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/fpm/2001/1000/p37.html Accessed 02/14/2019.

Compton P, Darakjian J, Miotto K. Screening for addiction in patients with chronic pain and “problematic” substance use: evaluation of a pilot assessment tool. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1998; 16: 355-363. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9879160 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Compton P, Wu SM, Schieffer B, Pham Q, Naliboff BD. Introduction to a self-report version of the Prescription Drug Use Questionnaire and relationship to medication agreement noncompliance. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2008; 36: 383-395. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2630195/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Compton P. The role of urine toxicology in chronic opioid analgesic therapy. Pain Manag Nurs. 2007; 8(4): 166-172. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18036504 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Compton P. Urine toxicology screening: a case study. Emerging Solutions in Pain. 2009. Available at: http://www.emergingsolutionsinpain.com Accessed 02/14/2019.

Cone et al. Urine drug testing of chronic pain patients: licit and illicit drug patterns. J Anal Toxicol. 2008; 32: 530-543. Available at: http://jat.oxfordjournals.org/content/32/8/530.long Accessed 02/14/2019.

Couper FJ, Logan BK. NHTSA Drugs and Human Performance Fact Sheets (rev 2014). 2014. Available at: https://www.wsp.wa.gov/breathtest/docs/webdms/DRE_Forms/Publications/drug/Human_Performance_Drug_Fact_Sheets-NHTSA.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Covidien. EXALGO(TM) Risk Evaluation & Mitigation Strategy. EXALGO(TM) Risk Evaluation & Mitigation Strategy. 2011.

Dahan A, et. al.. Incidence, Reversal, and Prevention of Opioid-induced Respiratory Depression. Anesthesiology. 2010; 112: 226-238. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20010421 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Dais J, Khosia A, Doulatram G. The successful treatment of opioid withdrawal-induced refractory muscle spasms with 5-HTP in a patient intolerant to clonidine. Pain Physician. 2015; 18: E417-E420. Available at: http://www.painphysicianjournal.com/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

De Gregori S, De Gregori M, Ranzani GN, et al. Morphine metabolism, transport and brain disposition. Metabolic Brain Disease. 2012; 27(1): 1-5. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22193538 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Deyo RA, Von Korff M, Duhrkoop D. Opioids for low back pain. The British Medical Journal. 2015; 350: g6380. Available at: http://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.g6380 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Donahue KE, Gartlehner G, Jonas DE. Systematic review: comparative effectiveness and harms of disease-modifying medications for rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Intern Med. 2008; 148: 124-134.

Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain — United States, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016; ePub: March 2016: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1er. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/rr/rr6501e1.htm Accessed 02/14/2019.

Dowling LS, Gatchel RJ, Adams LL, Stowell AW, Bernstein D. An evaluation of the predictive validity of the Pain Medication Questionnaire with a heterogeneous group of patients with chronic pain. J Opioid Manag. 2007; 3: 257-266. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18181380 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). State Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs: Questions & Answers. U.S. Department of Justice. 2008. Available at: http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/faq/rx_monitor.htm Accessed 02/14/2019.

Drugs.com. Naloxone. FDA Professional Drug Information. Copyright 2000-2015; Last updated Jan-Feb, 2015: . Available at: http://www.drugs.com/pro/naloxone.html Accessed 02/14/2019.

Dublin S, Walker RL, Jackson ML, Nelson JC , Weiss NS , Von Korff M, Jackson LA. Use of Opioids or Benzodiazepines and Risk of Pneumonia in Older Adults: A Population-Based Case-Control Study. J Am Geriatr Soc.. 2011; 59. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3223721/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Dunn KM, Saunders KW, Rutter CM, et al. Opioid prescriptions for chronic pain and overdose: a cohort study. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2010; 152(2): 85-92. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3000551/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

FDA. Blueprint for Prescriber Continuing Education Program 2011 (rev 2013). Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/rems/ERLA%20Opioids_2014-12-29_FDA%20BLUEPRINT%20FOR%20PRESCRIBER%20EDUCATION.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

FDA. ER/LA Opioid Analgesic Class Labeling Changes and Postmarket Requirements. New Safety Measures Announced for Extended-release and Long-acting Opioids. 2013. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/InformationbyDrugClass/UCM367697.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

FDA. New Safety Measures Announced for Extended-release and Long-acting Opioids. FDA Website. 2013. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/InformationbyDrugClass/ucm363722.htm Accessed 02/14/2019.

FDA. FDA Drug Safety Communication: FDA warns about several safety issues with opioid pain medicines; requires label changes. 3/22/2016. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm489676.htm Accessed 02/14/2019.

Federation of State Medical Boards of the United States. Model policy for the use of controlled substances for the treatment of pain. Federation of State Medical Boards of the United States, Inc. 2004. Available at: http://www.fsmb.org/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Ferri CM. Defining Opioid Tolerance and Dependency. Journal of Pain and Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 2013; 27: 392-393. Available at: http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.3109/15360288.2013.847518?journalCode=ppc Accessed 02/14/2019.

Fine PG. Opioid Rotation. J Pain Symptom Management. 2009. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19735902 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Fingerhut, LA. Increases in poisoning and methadone-related deaths: United States, 1999-2005. National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). 2008. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/poisoning/poisoning.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Fishbain DA, Cole B, Lewis J, Rosomoff HL, Rosomoff RS. What percentage of chronic nonmalignant pain patients exposed to chronic opioid analgesic therapy develop abuse/addiction and/or aberrant drug-related behaviors? A structured evidence-based review. Pain Med. 2008; 9(4): 444-59. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18489635 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Fishman SM, Bandman TB, Edwards A, Borsook D. The opioid contract in the management of chronic pain. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1999; 18(1): 6-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10439570 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Florida Legislature. Health Professions and Occupations: General Provisions. Online Sunshine. 2013. Available at: http://www.leg.state.fl.us/statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&URL=0400-0499/0456/0456.html Accessed 02/14/2019.

Freynhagen R, Geisslinger G, Schug SA. Opioids for chronic non-cancer pain. British Medical Journal. 2013; 346: . Available at: http://www.bmj.com/content/346/bmj.f2937 Accessed 02/14/2019.

FSMB. Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office. FSMB Website http://www.fsmb.org. 2013. Available at: https://www.fsmb.org/Media/Default/PDF/FSMB/Advocacy/2013_model_policy_treatment_opioid_addiction.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Galvez R, Perez C. Is morphine still the best reference opioid?. Future Medicine. 2012; 2(1): 33-45. Available at: http://www.futuremedicine.com/doi/abs/10.2217/pmt.11.78 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Garra G, Singer AJ, Taira BR, et al. Validation of the Wong-Baker FACES pain rating scale in pediatric emergency department patients. Academic Emergency Medicine. 2010; 17: 50-54. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20003121 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Goli V, Webster LR, Lamson MJ, et al. Effects of concurrent intravenous morphine sulfate and naltrexone hydrochloride on end-tidal carbon dioxide. Harm Reduction Journal. 2012; 9(13): . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22420453 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Gourlay DL, Heit HA , Caplan YH , et al. Urine drug testing in clinical practice: the art and science of patient care. John Hopkins Medicine. 2012; 5. Available at: https://www.remitigate.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Urine-Drug-Testing-in-Clinical-Practice-Ed6_2015-08.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Gourlay DL, Heit HA, Almahrezi A. Universal precautions in pain medicine: A rational approach to the treatment of chronic pain. Pain Medicine. 2005; 6(2): 107-112. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15773874 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Gourlay DL, Heit HA. Compliance monitoring in chronic pain management. In SM Fishman, JC Ballantyne, JP Rathmell (eds). Bonica’s Management of Pain, Fourth Edition Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2010. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Bonicas-Management-Pain-Fishman/dp/0781768276 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Gourlay DL, Heit HA. Universal Precautions Revisited: Managing the Inherited Pain Patient. Pain Medicine. 2009; 10(S2): S115-S123. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19691682 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Gourlay DL, Howard HA, Yale CH. Urine Drug Testing in Clinical Practice: Dispelling the Myths & Designing Strategies. California Academy of Family Physicians and PharamCom Group, Inc. 2006: Edition 3. Available at:  https://www.coursehero.com/file/5867154/171-UDT-2006/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Gupta DK, Avram MJ. Rational Opioid Dosing in the Elderly: Dose and Dosing Interval When Initiating Opioid Therapy. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 2012; 91(2): 339-343. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22205194 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Harm Reduction Coalition. Naloxone Kit Materials. Harm Reduction Coalition. . Available at: http://harmreduction.org/issues/overdose-prevention/tools-best-practices/od-kit-materials/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Harned M, Sloan P. Safety concerns with long-term opioid use. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2016; PMID: 27070052. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27070052 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Heit HA, Gourlay DL. Urine drug testing in pain medicine. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2004; 27(3): 260-267. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15010104 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Heit, H. Aberrant behaviors – refer or triage. Emerging Solutions in Pain. Ask the Expert. 2009. Available at: http://www.emergingsolutionsinpain.com/login?return=aW5kZXgucGhwP29wdGlvbj1jb21fbWFtcyZ2aWV3PWFydGljbGUmc2VjaWQ9MTcmYXJ0aWQ9MjM0Jkl0ZW1pZD0yMjA= Accessed 02/14/2019.

Holmes CP, Gatchel RJ, Adams LL, Stowell AW, et al. An opioid screening instrument: long-term evaluation of the utility of Pain Medication Questionnaire. Pain Pract. 2006; 6: 74-88. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17309714 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Hooten WM , Timming R, Belgrade M, et al. Assessment and management of chronic pain. Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement . 2013. Available at: https://www.opioidprescribing.com/documents/01-pain_assessmentand_management_guideline.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Hospice Palliative Care. Principles of Opioid Management. Hospice Palliative Care Program. 2006. Available at: https://web.archive.org/web/20170829012200/https://www.fraserhealth.ca/media/16FHSymptomGuidelinesOpioid.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Huang AR, Mallet L. Prescribing opioids in older people. Maturitas. 2013; 74: 123-129. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23201325 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Improving the Quality of Health Care for Mental and Substance-Use Conditions: Quality Chasm Series. Board on Health Care services. 2006. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/read/11470/chapter/5#78 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Health Professions Education: A Bridge to Quality. National Academies Press, Washington, DC. 2003. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/catalog/10681/health-professions-education-a-bridge-to-quality Accessed 02/14/2019.

Irwin RS, Rippe JM. Irwin and Rippe’s Intensive Care Medicine. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2012. Available at: https://www.amazon.com/Irwin-Rippes-Intensive-Care-Medicine/dp/160831183X Accessed 02/14/2019.

Jaine R, Jaine S. Antidepressants in the treatment of chronic pain. Practical Pain Management. 2011. Available at: http://www.practicalpainmanagement.com/treatments/pharmacological/non-opioids/antidepressants-treatment-chronic-pain?page=0,0 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Jarzyna D, et. al.. American Society of Pain Management Nursing Guidelines on Monitoring for Opioid-Induced Sedation and Respiratory Depression. Pain Management Nursing . 2011; 12: 118-145. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21893302 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Katz N, Fanciullo GJ. Role of urine toxicology testing in the management of chronic opioid therapy. Clin J Pain. 2002; 19(4): S76-S82. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12479257 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Ko TM, Wong CS, Wu JY, et al. Pharmacogenomics for personalized pain medicine. Acta Anaesthesiologica Taiwanica. 2016; 1: 24-30. Available at: http://www.e-aat.com/article/S1875-4597(15)30027-8/fulltext Accessed 02/14/2019.

Krantz MJ, Kutinsky IB, Robertson AD, et al. Dose-related effects of methadone on QT prolongation in a series of patients with torsade de pointes. Pharmacotherapy. 2003; 23: 802-05. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12820821 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Krebs EE, Lorenz KA, Bair MJ. Development and initial validation of the PEG, a three-item scale assessing pain intensity and interference. J Gen Intern Med. 2009; 24(6): 733-738. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2686775/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Lipman AG. Understanding Opioid Tolerance A Seriously Overestimated Phenomenon. Journal of Pain and Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 2013; 27: 318-319. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24303831 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Manchikanti L, et. al.. American Society of Interventional Physicians (ASIPP) Guidelines for Responsible Opioid Prescribing in Chronic Non-Cancer Pain: Part 2 – Guidance . Pain Physician. 2012; 15: 67-116. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22786449 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Marshall, PS. Physical Functional Ability Questionnaire (FAQ5). In: Assessment and Management of Chronic Pain, 5th edition. Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement. 2011; 14: Appendix C:99. Available at: http://www.generationsprimarycare.com/assets/pain-contract.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Martin DP, Bhalla T, Beltran R, et al. The safety of prescribing opioids in pediatrics. Expert opinion in drug safety. 2014; 13(1): 93-101. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24073760 Accessed 02/14/2019.

McCabe SE, Boyd CJ, Cranford JA, Teter CJ. Motives for nonmedical use of prescription opioids among high school seniors in the United States: Self-treatment and beyond. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. 2009; 163(8): 739-744.

McCulloch, DK. Chronic Opioid Therapy Safety Guideline for Patients With Chronic Non-Cancer Pain. Group Health. 2010, rev. 2012. Available at: https://wa.kaiserpermanente.org/static/pdf/public/guidelines/opioid.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

McNicol ED, Midbari A, Eisenberg E. Opioids for neuropathic pain. Cochrane Database System of Reviews. 2013; 8(8): CD006146. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23986501 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Mdege ND, Lang J . Screening instruments for detecting illicit drug use/abuse that could be useful in general hospital wards: a systematic review. Addictive Behaviors. 2011; 36(12): 1111-1119. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21821364 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Meissner K, Avram MJ, Yermolenka V, et al. Cyclosporine-inhibitable Blood-Brain Barrier Drug Transport Influences Clinical Morphine Pharmacodynamics. Anesthesiology. 2013; 119(4): 941-953. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23851346 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Melzack R. The McGill Pain Questionnaire: major properties and scoring methods. Pain. 1975; 1: 277-299. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1235985 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Merrill JO, Von Korff M, Banta-Green CJ, et al. Prescribed opioid difficulties, depression and opioid dose among chronic opioid therapy patients. General Hospital Psychiatry. 2012; 34: 581-587. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22959422 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Middleton P, Pollard H. Are chronic low back pain outcomes improved with co-management of concurrent depression?. Chiro Osteopat. 2005; 13(1). Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182702/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Moore TM , Jones T , Browder JH, et al. A comparison of common screening methods for predicting aberrant drug-related behavior among patients receiving opioids for chronic pain management. Pain Medicine. 2009; 10(8): 1426-1433. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-4637.2009.00743.x/abstract Accessed 02/14/2019.

NAABT.org. Physical Dependence and Addiction An Important Distinction. The National Alliance of Advocates for Buprenorphine Treatment. 2014. Available at: http://www.naabt.org/addiction_physical-dependence.cfm Accessed 02/14/2019.

Nafziger AN, Bertino JS. Utility and application of urine drug testing in chronic pain management with opioids. Clinical Journal of Pain. 2009; 25(1): 73-79. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19158549 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Nalamachu SR. Opioid Rotation in Clinical Practice. Advances in Therapy. 2012; 29(10): 849-863. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23054690 Accessed 02/14/2019.

NaloxoneInfo.org. Naloxone Information. NaloxoneInfo.org. . Available at: http://naloxoneinfo.org/sites/default/files/Frequently%20Asked%20Questions-Naloxone_EN.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. NIH Analysis Shows Americans are in Pain. National Institute of Health. 2015. Available at: https://nccih.nih.gov/news/press/08112015?nav=pin Accessed 02/14/2019.

National Pain Foundation. Migraine Headache. National Pain Foundation, Inc. 2009. Available at: https://uspainfoundation.org/tag/migraine/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Nicholson B. Benefits of extended-release opioid analgesic formulations in the treatment of chronic pain.. Pain Practice. 2009; 9: 71-81. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19019047 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Noble M, Treadwell JR, Tregear SJ, Coates VH, Wiffen PJ, Akafomo C, Schoelles KM. Long-term opioid management for chronic non-cancer pain. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2010; 1: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20091598 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP). Proper Disposal of Prescription Drugs. White House Drug Policy. 2009. Available at: http://www.whitehouse.gov/ondcp Accessed 02/14/2019.

Overdyk FJ. Initiatives in Safe Patient Care: Postoperative Respiratory Depression and Opioids. Saxe Healthcare Communications. 2009; 1-8: . Available at: http://www.initiatives-patientsafety.org/assets/initiatives1.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Pasero C, McCoffery M. Reversing Respiratory Depression with Naloxone. The American Journal of Nursing. 2003; 100: 26. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10683639 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Passik S. Moment of truth and techniques needed to manage the patient with chronic pain. Available at: http://www.medscape.org/viewarticle/587118 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Passik S. Psychiatric and pain characteristics of prescription drug abusers entering drug rehabilitation. Journal of Pain and Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 2006; 20(2): 5-13.

Passik SD, Kirsh KL, Casper D. Addiction-related assessment tools and pain management: instruments for screening, treatment planning and monitoring compliance. Pain Med. 2008; 9: S145-S166.

Passik SD, Kirsh KL, Webster L. Pseudoaddiction revisited: a commentary on clinical and historical considerations. Pain Management. 2011; 1(3): 239-248. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24646390 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Passik SD, Schein JR, Dodd SL, et al. A new tool to assess and document pain outcomes in chronic pain patients receiving opioid therapy. Clin Ther. 2004; 26(4): 552-61. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15189752 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Passik SD, Weinreb HJ. Managing chronic nonmalignant pain: Overcoming obstacles to the use of opioids. Adv Ther. 2000; 17: 70-83.

Pawasauskas J, Stevens B, Youssef R, Kelley M. Predictors of naloxone use for respiratory depression and oversedation in hospitalized adults. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy. 2014; 71(9): 746-750. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24733138 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Peppin JF, Passik SD, Couto JE, et al. Recommendations for urine drug monitoring as a component of opioid therapy in the treatment of chronic pain. Pain Medicine. 2012; June early e-publications: 1-11. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-4637.2012.01414.x/abstract Accessed 02/14/2019.

Pergolizzi J, Böger RH, Budd K, et al. Opioids and the management of chronic severe pain in the elderly: consensus statement of an International Expert Panel with focus on the six clinically most often used World Health Organization Step III opioids (buprenorphine, fentanyl, hydromorphone, methadone, morphine, oxycodone). Pain Pract. 2008; 8(4): 287-313. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18503626 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Physicians for Responsible Opioid Prescribing (PROP). Cautious Evidence Based Opioid Prescribing. Physicians for Responsible Opioid Prescribing. 2011. Available at: http://www.supportprop.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/PROP_OpioidPrescribing.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Portenoy RK, Ahmed E. Principles of Opioid Use in Cancer Pain. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2014; 32(16): 1662-1670. Available at: http://jco.ascopubs.org/content/early/2014/05/05/JCO.2013.52.5188.abstract Accessed 02/14/2019.

Pritham UA, McKay L. Safe Management of Chronic Pain in Pregnancy in an Era of Opioid Misuse and Abuse. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing. 2014; 43(5): 554-567. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25123962 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Reisfield GM, Salazar E, Bertholf RL. Review: rational use and interpretation of urine drug testing in chronic opioid therapy. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 2007; 37(4): 301-314. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000286 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Risser A, Donovan D, Heintzman J, Page T. NSAID prescribing precautions. Am Fam Physician. 2009; 80(12): 1371-8. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2009/1215/p1371.html Accessed 02/14/2019.

Rudd RA. Increases in Drug and Opioid-Involved Overdose Deaths — United States, 2010–2015. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2016; 65. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/wr/mm655051e1.htm Accessed 02/14/2019.

SAMHSA. Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings. NSDUH Series H-46, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 13-4795. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2013. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUHresultsPDFWHTML2013/Web/NSDUHresults2013.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

SAMHSA. SAMHSA opioid overdose prevention toolkit. 2014. Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//SMA14-4742/Overdose_Toolkit.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Savage SD, Kirsh KL, Passik, SD. Challenges in using opioids to treat pain in persons with substance use disorders. Addiction Science & Clinical Practice. 2008. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2797112/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Schafer, M. Guide to Pain Management in Low-Resource Settings, Chapter 7 Opioids in Pain Medicine. International Association for the Study of Pain. 2010. Available at: http://www.iasp-pain.org/files/Content/ContentFolders/Publications2/FreeBooks/Guide_to_Pain_Management_in_Low-Resource_Settings.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Schechter Neil L. Pediatric Pain Management and Opioids: the baby and the bathwater. JAMA Pediatrics. 2014; 168(11): 987-988. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25200481 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Schnoll, Sidney H., Finch, James. Medical Education for Pain and Addiction: Making Progress Toward Answering a Need. The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics. 1994. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1748-720X.1994.tb01303.x/abstract Accessed 02/14/2019.

Shah A, Hayes CJ, Martin BC, et al. Characteristics of initial prescription episodes and likelihood of long-term opioid use — United States, 2006–2015. MMWR. 2017; 66(10): 265-269. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/66/wr/mm6610a1.htm?s_cid=mm6610a1_w Accessed 02/14/2019.

Shi Y, Weingarten TN, Hooten WM, Maintilla CB, Warner DO. Smoking and pain: pathophysiology and clinical implications. Anesthesiology. 2010; 113(4): 977-992. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20864835 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Silverman SM. Opioid induced hyperalgesia: Clinical implications for the pain practitioner. Pain Physician. 2009; 12(3): 679-694. Available at: http://www.painphysicianjournal.com/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Solanki DR, Koyyalagunta D, Shah RV, Silverman S, Manchikanti L. Monitoring opioid adherence in chronic pain patients: Assessment of risk of substance misuse. Pain Physician. 2011; 14: E119-E131. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21412377 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Solomon DH, Furst DE, Romain PL. Patient information: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). UpToDate. 2014. Available at: http://www.uptodate.com/contents/nonsteroidal-antiinflammatory-drugs-nsaids-beyond-the-basics Accessed 02/14/2019.

Stagnitti MN. Trends in Prescribed Outpatient Opioid Use and Expenses in the U.S. Civilian Noninstitutionalized Population, 2002-2012. Statistical Brief. AHRQ. 2015. Available at: http://meps.ahrq.gov/mepsweb/data_files/publications/st478/stat478.shtml Accessed 02/14/2019.

Stein DJ, Ipser JC, Seedat S. Pharmacotherapy for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews. 2006; 1. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16437445 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Results from the 2008 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings. Office of Applied Studies, NSDUH Series H-36, HHS Publication No. SMA 09-4434. Rockville, MD. 2009.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. Rockville, Md: Center For Substance Abuse Treatment. Treatment Improvement Protocol Series, No. 40, USDHHS Publication (SMA) 04-3939. 2004. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64766/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Opioid Overdose Toolkit. SAMHSA. Available at:  https://store.samhsa.gov/product/Opioid-Overdose-Prevention-Toolkit/SMA18-4742 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Tennant F. Using objective signs of severe pain to guide opioid prescribing. Pain Treatment Topics. 2008. Available at: http://www.thblack.com/links/RSD/Tennant-PainSigns-6p.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

The American Academy of Pain Medicine. The American Society of Addiction Medicine. Consensus document. The American Pain Society. 2001. Available at: https://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/public-policy-statements/1opioid-definitions-consensus-2-011.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Trescot A, Glaser S, Hansen H, et al. Effectiveness of opioids in the treatment of chronic non-cancer pain. Pain Physician. 2008a; 11: S181-S200. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18443639 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Trescot A, Helm S, Hansen H, et al. Opioids in the management of chronic non-cancer pain: an update of American Society of the Interventional Pain Physicians’ (ASIPP) guidelines. Pain Physician. 2008b; 11: S5-S62.

Turner JA, Saunders K, Shortreed SM, et al. Chronic Opioid Therapy Urine Drug Testing in Primary Care: Prevalence and Predictors of Aberrant Results. J Gen Intern Med. 2014; 29(12): 1663-1671. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25217208 Accessed 02/14/2019.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Final Recommendation Statement – Depression in Adults: Screening. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Website. 2016. Available at: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/RecommendationStatementFinal/depression-in-adults-screening1 Accessed 02/14/2019.

USDHHS. Facing Addiction in America. The Surgeon General’s Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health. Surgeon General Reports. 2016. Available at: https://addiction.surgeongeneral.gov/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

VA/DoD. Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain. VA/DoD. 2010. Available at: https://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/Pain/cot/VADoDOTCPG022717.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

VA/DoD. Tapering and Discontinuing Opioids. 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain. 2010. Available at: https://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/Pain/cot/VADoDOTCPG022717.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

VA/DoD. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain. VA/DoC. 2003. Available at: http://www.ihs.gov/nc4/index.cfm Accessed 02/14/2019.

van Ojik AL, Jansen PAF, Brouwers J, et al. Treatment of Chronic Pain in Older People. Drugs & Aging. 2012; 29(8): 615-625. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22765848 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Vissers KCP, Besse K, Hans G, Devulder J, Morlion B. Opioid Rotation in the Management of Chronic Pain: Where Is the Evidence?. Pain Practice. 2010; 10(2): 85-93. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1533-2500.2009.00335.x/pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Vowles KE, McEntee ML, Julnes PS, et al. Rates of opioid misuse, abuse, and addiction in chronic pain: a systematic review and data synthesis. Pain. 2015; 156(4): 569-576. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25785523 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Walsh S. FDA approves new hand-held auto-injector to reverse opioid overdose: First naloxone treatment specifically designed to be given by a family members or caregivers. FDA.gov. 2014. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm391449.htm Accessed 02/14/2019.

Warner EA. Opioids for the Treatment of Chronic Noncancer Pain. The American Journal of Medicine. 2012; 125(12): 1155-1161. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18443640 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Warner M, Chen LH, Makuc DM. Increase in fatal poisonings involving opioid analgesics in the United States, 1999-2006. NCHS Data Brief, no. 22. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2009. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db22.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Washington State Department of Health. Washington State Department of Health: Pain Management. Washington State Department of Health. 2010. Available at: http://www.doh.wa.gov/ForPublicHealthandHealthcareProviders/HealthcareProfessionsandFacilities/PainManagement Accessed 02/14/2019.

Webster LR, Fine PG. Overdose deaths demand a new paradigm for opioid rotation. Pain Med. 2012; 13(4): 571-4. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22458858 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Webster LR, Webster RM. Predicting aberrant behaviors in opioid-treated patients: Preliminary validation of the Opioid Risk Tool. Pain Medicine. 2005; 6(6): 432-442. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16336480 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Webster LR. Methadone-related deaths. Pain Med. 2011; 1(4): 211-7. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21668754 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Weissman DE, Haddox JD. Opioid pseudoaddiction—An iatrogenic syndrome. J Pain. 1989; 36(3): 363-366. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2710565 Accessed 02/14/2019.

World Health Organization (WHO). WHO’s pain relief ladder. World Health Organization: Programmes and projects: Cancer. 2010. Available at: http://www.who.int/cancer/palliative/painladder/en/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Wu SM, Compton P, Bolus R, et al. The Addiction Behaviors Checklist: validation of a new clinician-based measure of inappropriate opioid use in chronic pain. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2006; 32: 342-351. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17000351 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Zacharoff, KL, Pujol LM, Corsini E. Managing Chronic Pain With Opioids in Primary Care. The PainEDU.org Manual. 2010; 2nd ed. Available at: http://www.bookwire.com/book/USA/Managing-Chronic-Pain-with-Opioids-in-Primary-Care-9780982529805-Zacharoff-Kevin-L-28531238 Accessed 02/14/2019.

The incidence of opioid overdose, diversion, and addiction has continued to rise (SAMHSA, 2017; CDC, 2016), suggesting that physicians are not sufficiently following evidence-based guidelines for prescribing opioids to minimize these risks. The parallel rise of the rate of opioid addiction and the number of opioid prescriptions (SAMHSA, 2013; DAWN, 2013) suggests that physicians do not follow guidelines to limit opioid prescribing. Training physicians in the guidelines for safe opioid prescribing would decrease exposure of patients with chronic pain to unnecessary risks of opioids (Dowell, et al., 2016).

Practice Gap References

Adams NJ, Plane MB, Fleming MF, et al. Opioids and the Treatment of Chronic Pain in a Primary Care Sample. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2001; 22: 791-796. Accessed on: 2015-09-21.
Califano, JA et al. Under the Counter: The Diversion and Abuse of Controlled Prescription Drugs in the U.S. The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University. 2005. Available at: http://www.centeronaddiction.org/addiction-research/reports/under-the-counter-diversion-abuse-controlled-perscription-drugs Accessed on: 2013-09-13.
Chou R, Fanciullo G, Fine P, et al. Clinical guidelines for the use of chronic opioid therapy in chronic noncancer pain. J Pain. 2009; 10(2): 113-130. Available at: http://www.jpain.org/article/S1526-5900(08)00831-6/abstract
Couto JE, Romney M, Leider HL, et al. Population Health Management. . 2009; 12(4): 185-190. Accessed on: 2015-09-21.
Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain — United States, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016; ePub: March 2016: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1er. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/rr/rr6501e1.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-16.
Governale L. Outpatient Prescription Opioid Utilization in the U.S., 2000-2009. Drug Utilization Data Analysis Team Leader, Division of Epidemiology, Office of Surveillance and Epidemiology. Presentation for U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2010. Available at: www.fda.gov/downloads/AdvisoryCommittees/CommitteesMeetingMaterials/Drugs/AnestheticAndLifeSupportDrugsAdvisoryCommittee/UCM220950.pdf Accessed on: 2015-09-21.
Hall AJ, Logan JE, Toblin RL, et al.. Patterns of Abuse Among Unintentional Pharmaceutical Overdose Fatalities. JAMA. 2008; 300(22): 2613-2620. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19066381 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.
Hooten WM, Bruce BK. Beliefs and Attitudes about Prescribing Opioids among Healthcare Providers Seeking Continuing Medical Education. J Opioid Manag. 2011; 7(6): 417-424. Accessed on: 2015-09-21.
Isaacson JH, Fleming M, Kraus M, et al. A National Survey of Training in Substance Use Disorders in Residency Programs. J Stud Alcohol . 2000; 61: 912-915. Accessed on: 2015-09-21.
Miller NS, Sheppard LM, Colenda CC, et al. Why Physicians are Unprepared to Treat Patients who have Alcohol and Drug-related Disorders. Acad Med. 2001; 76: 410-418. Accessed on: 2015-09-21.
NIH, U.S. Department of Health & Human Resources. NIH Analysis Shows Americans are in Pain. NIH News, National Institutes of Health. 2015. Available at: https://nccih.nih.gov/news/press/08112015?nav=pin Accessed on: 2015-09-22.
Passik S. Psychiatric and pain characteristics of prescription drug abusers entering drug rehabilitation. Journal of Pain and Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 2006; 20(2): 5-13.
Ponte CD, Johnson-Tribino J. Attitudes and Knowledge about Pain: An Assessment of West Virginia Family Physicians . Fam Med. 2005; 37(7): 477-480. Accessed on: 2015-09-21.
Salinas GD, Susalka D, Burton BS, et al. Risk Assessment and Counseling Behaviors of Healthcare Professionals Managing Patients with Chronic Pain: A National Multifaceted Assessment of Physicians, Pharmacists, and their Patients. J Opioid Manag. 2012; 8(5): 273-84. Accessed on: 2015-09-21.
SAMHSA. Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings. NSDUH Series H-46, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 13-4795. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2013. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUHresultsPDFWHTML2013/Web/NSDUHresults2013.pdf Accessed on: 2014-07-30.
Schrader SL, Nelson ML, Halbritter S, et al. South Dakota Pain Surveys: Results from 2001. SD J Med. 2005; 58(10): 423-431. Accessed on: 2015-09-21.
SDI, Vector One ®: National. SDI, Physician Drug and Diagnosis Audit, 2009. . 2010. Accessed on: 2015-09-21.
Stagnitti MN. Trends in Prescribed Outpatient Opioid Use and Expenses in the U.S. Civilian Noninstitutionalized Population, 2002-2012. Statistical Brief. AHRQ. 2015. Available at: http://meps.ahrq.gov/mepsweb/data_files/publications/st478/stat478.shtml Accessed on: 2015-10-12.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2016 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings . NSDUH Series H-52. 2017; HHS Publication No. SMA 17-5044: . Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/topics/data_outcomes_quality/nsduh-ppt-09-2017.pdf Accessed on: 2018-02-20.
The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (CASA). Missed Opportunity: National Survey of Primary Care Physicians and Patients on Substance Abuse. The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University, Survey Research Laboratory. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois at Chicago. 2000. Available at: http://www.centeronaddiction.org/addiction-research/reports/national-survey-primary-care-physicians-patients-substance-abuse Accessed on: 2014-04-28.
Upshur CC, Luckman RS, Savageau JA. Primary Care Provider Concerns about Pain Management of Chronic Pain in Community Clinic Populations . J Gen Intern Med . 2008; 21(6): 652-655. Accessed on: 2015-09-21.
US Department of Health and Human Services, SAMHSA. National Estimates of Drug-Related Emergency Department Visits. Drug Abuse Warning Network, 2011. 2013. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/DAWN2k11ED/DAWN2k11ED/DAWN2k11ED.pdf Accessed on: 2014-10-31.
Warner M, Chen LH, Makuc DM, et al. Drug Poisoning Deaths in the United States, 1980-2008 . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Center for Disease Control and Prevention; National Center for Health Statistics. NCHS Data Brief. 2011; 81: . Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db81.pdf Accessed on: 2013-05-29.

AAPS. Project: Communicate and Cooperate; AAPS 3-Point Plan to Stop the “Drug War on Physicians” & Reduce Prescription Drug Abuse. Association of American Physicians and Surgeons, Inc.. 2009. Available at: http://www.aapsonline.org/painman/cooperate.htm Accessed 02/13/2019.

ACPM . Use, abuse, misuse, and disposal of prescription pain medication clinical reference. American College Preventive Medicine . 2011. Available at: http://www.yuma.usmc-mccs.org/mccsyuma/assets/File/Drug%20Facts%20Sheets/painmedsclinicalreference.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-07.

Alford DP, Compton P, Samet JH. Acute Pain Management for Patients Receiving Maintenance Methadone or Buprenorphine Therapy. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2006; 144(2): 127-134. Available at: http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=719514 Accessed 02/13/2019.

American Pain Society in conjunction with the American Academy of Pain Medicine. Guideline for the Use of Chronic Opioid Therapy in Chronic Noncancer Pain. Evidence Review. American Pain Society. 2009. Available at: http://americanpainsociety.org/uploads/education/guidelines/chronic-opioid-therapy-cncp.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Use of Medications in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use. June 1, 2015. Available at: http://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/practice-support/guidelines-and-consensus-docs/asam-national-practice-guideline-supplement1b630f9472bc604ca5b7ff000030b21a.pdf?sfvrsn=0 Accessed 02/13/2019.

American Society of Anesthesiologists. The Management of Pain. 2010. Available at: http://www.asahq.org/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

Baldisseri MR. Impaired healthcare professional. Crit Care Med. 2007; 35(2): S106-16. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17242598 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Ballantyne, JC, Mao, J. Opioid therapy for chronic pain. N Engl J Med. 2003; 349(20): 1943-53. Available at: http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra025411 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Banta-Green CJ, Merrill JO, Doyle SR, Boudreau DM, Calsyn DA. Opioid use behaviors, mental health and pain-development of a typology of chronic pain patients. Drug Alcohol Depend. In Press Epub. 2009. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2716214/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

Brushwood DB. Electronic prescription monitoring programs: a data-reporting tool designed to prevent drug diversion. Emerging Solutions in Pain Knowledge Series III. MediCom Worldwide, Inc. 2007. Available at: http://www.emergingsolutionsinpain.com/index.php?option=com_continued&cat=20&Itemid=267 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Brushwood DB. Maximizing the value of electronic prescription monitoring programs. Journal of Law, Medicine, and Ethics. 2003; 31: 41-54. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1748-720X.2003.tb00058.x/abstract Accessed 02/13/2019.

Califano, JA et al. Under the Counter: The Diversion and Abuse of Controlled Prescription Drugs in the U.S. The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University. 2005. Available at: http://www.centeronaddiction.org/addiction-research/reports/under-the-counter-diversion-abuse-controlled-perscription-drugs Accessed 02/13/2019.

Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER). Abuse-deterrent opioids – evaluation and labeling . U.S Department of Health and Human Services. 2015. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/drugs/guidancecomplianceregulatoryinformation/guidances/ucm334743.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Center for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) . What is a prescriber’s role in preventing the diversion of prescription drugs?. Partners in Integrity. 2014. Available at: http://www.cms.gov/medicare-medicaid-coordination/fraud-prevention/medicaid-integrity-education/provider-education-toolkits/downloads/prescriber-role-drugdiversion.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series 42. DHHS Publication No. (SMA) 05-3922. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Substance Abuse Treatment for Persons With Co-Occurring Disorders. 2005. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64197/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

Chou R, Fanciullo G, Fine P, et al. Clinical guidelines for the use of chronic opioid therapy in chronic noncancer pain. J Pain. 2009; 10(2): 113-130. Available at: http://www.jpain.org/article/S1526-5900(08)00831-6/abstract Accessed 02/13/2019.

Cicero JT, Dart RC, Inciardi JA, Woody GE, Schnoll S, Munoz A. The Development of a Comprehensive Risk-Management Program for Prescription Opioid Analgesics: Researched Abuse, Diversion, and Addiction-Related Surveillance (RADARS). Pain Medicine. 2007; 8(2): 157-169. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17305687 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Cicero TJ, Inciardi JA, Munoz A. Trends in abuse of Oxycontin and other opioid analgesics in the United States: 2002–2004. J Pain. 2005; 6(10): 662–672. Available at: http://www.jpain.org/article/S1526-5900(05)00656-5/abstract Accessed 02/13/2019.

Cole, BE. Recognizing and Preventing Medication Diversion. Family Practice Management. 2001; 8(9): 37-41. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/fpm/2001/1000/p37.html Accessed 02/13/2019.

Cole, E. Recognizing preventing and medication diversion: Don’t let diversion of pain medication hamper your ability to treat chronic pain. Family Practice Management. 2001; 8(2): 37-41. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/fpm/2001/1000/p37.html Accessed 02/13/2019.

Compton P. Should Opioid Abusers be Discharged from Opioid-Analgesic Therapy?. Pain Medicine. 2008; 9(4): 383-390. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18489627 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Compton, Peggy. Substance Abuser with Chronic Pain. QuantiaMD. 2010; courseid=30793: . Available at: http://Quantiamd.com Accessed 02/13/2019.

Coolen, P. Overdose deaths involving prescription opioids among Medicaid enrollees—Washington, 2004-2007. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR). 2009; 58(42): 1171-75. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5842a1.htm Accessed 02/13/2019.

Cornish MA , Wade NG. Spirituality and religion in group counseling: a literature review with practical guidelines . American Psychological Association. 2010. Available at: http://www.researchgate.net/publication/232591847_Spirituality_and_Religion_in_Group_Counseling_A_Literature_Review_With_Practice_Guidelines Accessed 02/13/2019.

Dart R. Evaluation of ADFs using RADARS system data . RADARS System. 2011. Available at: http://www.thblack.com/links/RSD/RADARS(R)%20System_2011%20Annual%20Meeting%20Summary.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Dart, RC. Opioid Abuse, Misuse, and Diversion: Strategies for Prevention. Researched Abuse, Diversion and Addiction-Related Surveillance (RADARS). 2009: 11-25. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-4637.2006.00259.x/abstract Accessed 02/13/2019.

Dasgupta N . RADARS system subutex & suboxone: how much is prescribed vs. abuse/diversion reports. SAMHSA Meeting on Buprenorphine. 2010. Available at: https://www.radars.org/system/publications/2008_Dasgupta_CSAT.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

DEA. Pharmacist’s Manual – an informational outline of the controlled substances act. Office of Diversion Control. 2010. Available at: http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/pubs/manuals/pharm2/index.html Accessed 02/13/2019.

DEA. Schedules of Controlled Substances: Placement of Tramadol Into Schedule IV. DEA Office of Diversion Control Website. 2014; Rules – 2014: 21 CFR Part 1308 Docket No. DEA-351. Available at: http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/fed_regs/rules/2014/fr0702.htm Accessed 02/13/2019.

Deding M , Saidj M , Brännström L. 12-step programs for reducing illicit drug use: protocol for a systematic review. The Campbell Collaboration . 2013. Available at: https://campbellcollaboration.org/library/12-step-programmes-illicit-drug-abuse-reduction.html Accessed 02/13/2019.

Dowell D , Kunins HV, Farley TA. Opioid analgesics – risky drugs, not risky patients. JAMA . 2013; 309(21): . Available at: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1686609 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain — United States, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016; ePub: March 2016: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1er. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/rr/rr6501e1.htm Accessed 02/13/2019.

Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN). Highlights of the 2009 Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) findings on drug-related emergency department visits. 2010. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov Accessed 02/13/2019.

Drug and Alcohol Services Information System (DASIS). Characteristics of Primary Prescription and OTC Treatment Admissions: 2002. The DASIS Report, Office of Applied Studies, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2004. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/node/20 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). Automation of Reports and Consolidated Orders System (ARCOS). U.S. Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration, Office of Diversion Control. 2009. Available at: http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/arcos/index.html Accessed 02/13/2019.

Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). Practitioner’s manual – an informational outline of the controlled substances act. Office of Diversion Control. 2006. Available at: http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/pubs/manuals/pract/pract_manual012508.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Drug Enforcement Administration. State Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs. U.S. Department of Justice. 2009. Available at: http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/faq/rx_monitor.htm Accessed 02/13/2019.

Drug Enforcement Administration. State Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs. U.S. Department of Justice. 2010. Available at: http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/faq/rx_monitor.htm Accessed 02/13/2019.

Dunn KM, Saunders KW, Rutter CM, et al. Opioid prescriptions for chronic pain and overdose: a cohort study. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2010; 152(2): 85-92. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3000551/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

DuPont RL, McLellan AT, White WL, Merlo LJ, Gold MS. Setting the standard for recovery: physicians’ health programs. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2009; 36: 159-171. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19161896 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Dysvik E , Kvaløy JT , Natvig GK. The effectiveness of an improved multidisciplinary pain management programme: a 6- and 12-month follow-up study. J Adv Nurs. 2012; 68(5): 1061-72. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22050304 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Eccher DF. Maine’s Prescription Monitoring Program: Preventing Prescription Drug Misuse. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Substance Abuse. 2009. Available at: http://www.maine.gov/dhhs/osa/data/pmp/files/ME_PMP_Intro_20090113.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Eggleston W, Clark KH, Marraffa JM. Loperamide abuse associated with cardiac dysrhythmia and death. Annals of Emergency Medicine. 2016; DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.annemergmed.2016.03.047: . Available at: http://www.annemergmed.com/article/S0196-0644(16)30052-X/fulltext Accessed 02/13/2019.

Emmons K, Rollnick S. Motivational interviewing in health care settings. Opportunities and limitations. Am J Prev Med. 2001; 20(1): 68-74. Available at: http://www.ajpmonline.org/article/S0749-3797(00)00254-3/abstract Accessed 02/13/2019.

FDA. FDA approves first once-monthly buprenorphine injection, a medication-assisted treatment option for opioid use disorder. U.S. Food and Drug Administration Website. 2017; November 30. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm587312.htm Accessed 02/13/2019.

Fine PG. Opioid Rotation. J Pain Symptom Management. 2009. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19735902 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Fingerhut, LA. Increases in poisoning and methadone-related deaths: United States, 1999-2005. National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). 2008. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/poisoning/poisoning.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Fitzgibbon DR, Rathmell JP, Michna E, Stephens LS, Posner KL, Domino KB. Malpractice claims associated with medication management for chronic pain. Anesthesiology. 2010; 112(4): 777-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20234314 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Frank E, Carrera JS, Elon L, Hertzberg VS. Basic demographics, health practices, and health status of US medical students. American Journal of Preventative Medicine. 2006; 31(6): 499-505. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17169711 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Frank E, Elon L, Naimi T, Brewer R. Alcohol consumption and alcohol counseling behavior among US medical students: cohort study. BMJ. 2008; 337:a2155: 1-10. Available at: http://www.bmj.com/content/337/bmj.a2155 Accessed 02/13/2019.

FSMB. Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office. FSMB Website http://www.fsmb.org. 2013. Available at: https://www.fsmb.org/Media/Default/PDF/FSMB/Advocacy/2013_model_policy_treatment_opioid_addiction.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Galanter M, Dermatis H, Mansky P, McIntyre J, Perez-Fuentes G. Substance-abusing physicians: monitoring and twelve-step-based treatment. American Journal on Addictions. 2007; 16:2: 117-123.

Gibbs LS and Haddox JD. Lawful Prescribing and the Prevention of Diversion. Journal of Pain & Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 2003; 17(1): 5-14. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14640336 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Gibbs LS, Haddox JD. Lawful prescribing and the prevention of diversion. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2003. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14640336 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Gilson AM, Joranson DE. U.S. Policies Relevant to the Prescribing of Opioid Analgesics for the Treatment of Pain in Patients with Addictive Disease. The Clinical Journal of Pain. 2002; 18: S91-S98. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12479259 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Giulia N , McDonough CM , Cabral H, et al . Cost-utility of cognitive behavioral therapy for low back pain from the commercial payer perspective. Spine . 2015; 40(10): 725-733. Available at: http://journals.lww.com/spinejournal/Abstract/2015/05150/Cost_Utility_of_Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy_for.12.aspx Accessed 02/13/2019.

Gourlay DL, Heit HA, Almahrezi A. Universal precautions in pain medicine: A rational approach to the treatment of chronic pain. Pain Medicine. 2005; 6(2): 107-112. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15773874 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Green TC , Mann MR , Bowman SE , et al . How does use of a prescription monitoring program change medical practice?. Pain Medicine . 2012; 13: 1314-1323. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22845339 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Greenwald MK, Schuh KJ, Hopper JA, Schuster CR, Johanson CE. Effects of buprenorphine sublingual tablet maintenance on opioid drug-seeking behavior by humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2002; 160(4): 344-352. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11919661 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Hall AJ, Logan JE, Toblin RL, et al. Patterns of abuse among inuntentional pharmaceutical overdose fatalities. JAMA. 2008; 300(22): 2613-2620. Available at: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=183046 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Hall AJ, Logan JE, Toblin RL, et al. Patterns of Abuse Among Unintentional Pharmaceutical Overdose Fatalities. JAMA. 2008; 300(22): 2613-2620. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19066381 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Hall AJ, Paulozzi LJ. Prescription Opioids and Overdose Deaths—Reply. JAMA. 2009; 301(17): 1767-1768. Available at: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=183831 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Harm Reduction Coalition. Naloxone Kit Materials. Harm Reduction Coalition. Available at: http://harmreduction.org/issues/overdose-prevention/tools-best-practices/od-kit-materials/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

Harned M, Sloan P. Safety concerns with long-term opioid use. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2016; PMID: 27070052: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27070052 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Harwood I, Stansfeld S. Doctors and Alcohol Misuse. StudentBMJ . 2006; 14: 265-308. Available at: http://student.bmj.com/student/student-bmj.html Accessed 02/13/2019.

Heit, H. Aberrant behaviors – refer or triage. Emerging Solutions in Pain. Ask the Expert. 2009. Available at: http://www.emergingsolutionsinpain.com/login?return=aW5kZXgucGhwP29wdGlvbj1jb21fbWFtcyZ2aWV3PWFydGljbGUmc2VjaWQ9MTcmYXJ0aWQ9MjM0Jkl0ZW1pZD0yMjA= Accessed 02/13/2019.

Hooten WM , Timming R, Belgrade M, et al. Assessment and management of chronic pain. Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement . 2013. Available at: https://www.opioidprescribing.com/documents/01-pain_assessmentand_management_guideline.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Inciardi JA, Surratt HL, Cicero TJ, et al . Prescription opioid abuse and diversion in an urban community: the results of an ultra-rapid assessment. Pain Med . 2009; 10(3): 537-548. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2719877/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Improving the Quality of Health Care for Mental and Substance-Use Conditions: Quality Chasm Series. Board on Health Care services. 2006. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/read/11470/chapter/5#78 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Crossing the Quality Chasm: A New Health System for the 21st Century. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. 2001. Available at: http://iom.nationalacademies.org/Reports/2001/Crossing-the-Quality-Chasm-A-New-Health-System-for-the-21st-Century.aspx Accessed 02/13/2019.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Health Professions Education: A Bridge to Quality. National Academies Press, Washington, DC. 2003. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/catalog/10681/health-professions-education-a-bridge-to-quality Accessed 02/13/2019.

Kahan M, Srivastava A, Wilson L, Gourlay D, Midmer D. Misuse of and dependence on opioids: Study of chronic pain patients. Can Fam Physician. 2006; 52(9): 1081-1087. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1783735/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

Kaner E, Rapley T, May C. Seeing through the glass darkly? A qualitative exploration of GPs’ drinking and their alcohol intervention practices. Family Practice. 2006; 23: 481-487. Available at: http://fampra.oxfordjournals.org/content/23/4/481.full.pdf+html Accessed 02/13/2019.

Katz NP, Adams EH, Benneyan JC, Birnbaum HG, Budman SH et al. Foundations of opioid risk management. Clinical Journal of Pain. 2007; 23: 103-118. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17237659 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Keefe FJ. Cognitive behavioral therapy for managing pain. The Clinical Psychologist. 1996; 49(3): 4-5. Available at:  https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267420048_Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy_for_Managing_Pain Accessed 02/13/2019.

Kessler RC. The epidemiology of dual diagnosis. Biological Psychiatry. 2004; 56(10): 730–737. Available at: http://www.biologicalpsychiatryjournal.com/article/S0006-3223(04)00739-5/abstract Accessed 02/13/2019.

Krantz MJ, Kutinsky IB, Robertson AD, et al. Dose-related effects of methadone on QT prolongation in a series of patients with torsade de pointes. Pharmacotherapy. 2003; 23: 802-05. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12820821 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Krantz MJ, Mehler PS. Treating opioid dependence. Growing implications for primary care. Arch Intern Med. 2004; 164(3): 277-88. Available at: http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=216641 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Lande RG, Marin BA, Chang AS, Mason S, Lande GR. A survey of alcohol consumption among first-year military medical students. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2007; 33(4): 605-10. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17668346 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Laudet AB. Substance Abuse Treatment Providers’ Referral to Self-Help: Review and Future Empirical Directions. Int J Self Help Self Care. 2000; 1(3): 213-225. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2112772/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

Loxterkamp D. Helping ‘them’: our role in recovery from opioid dependence. Ann Fam Med. 2006; 4(2): 168-71. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1467002/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

Madsen MV, Gøtzsche PC, Hróbjartsson A. Acupuncture treatment for pain: systematic review of randomized clinical trials with acupuncture, placebo acupuncture, and no acupuncture groups. BMJ. 2009; 338: 13-115.

McLellan AT, Turner BJ. Chronic noncancer pain management and opioid overdose: time to change prescribing practices. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2010; 152(2): 123-124. Available at: http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=745524 Accessed 02/13/2019.

McPherson ML. Demystifying Opioid Conversion Calculations: A Guide for Effective Dosing. Available in Google Books. 2009. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Demystifying-Opioid-Conversion-Calculations-Effective/dp/1585281980 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Meghani et al. Predictors of resolution of aberrant drug behavior in chronic pain patients treated in a structured opioid risk management program. Pain Med. 2009. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19523029?ordinalpos=4&itool=Email.EmailReport.Pubmed_ReportSelector.Pubmed_RVDocSum Accessed 02/13/2019.

Menefee Pujol LA, Katz N, Zacharoff KL. The Role of Referral for Consultation in Pain Management. PainEDU Manual Updates. 2009.

Merlo LJ, Gold MS. Prescription opioid abuse and dependence among physicians: hypotheses and treatment. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2008; 16: 181-194. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18569039 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Merrick M. Prescription opioids and overdose deaths. JAMA. 2009; 301(17): 1767. Available at: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=183832 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Middleton P, Pollard H. Are chronic low back pain outcomes improved with co-management of concurrent depression?. Chiro Osteopat. 2005; 13(1). Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182702/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

Miller WR, Rollnick S . Motivational interviewing. Helping people change.. Applications of Motivational Interviewing . 2012; 3: . Available at: http://www.guilford.com/books/Motivational-Interviewing/Miller-Rollnick/9781609182274 Accessed 02/13/2019.

NaloxoneInfo.org. Naloxone Information. NaloxoneInfo.org. Available at: http://naloxoneinfo.org/sites/default/files/Frequently%20Asked%20Questions-Naloxone_EN.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

National Drug Intelligence Center. Heroin Distribution in Three Cities: New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles. Johnstown, Pa: U.S. Department of Justice. Product 2001-R0370-001. 2000a.

National Drug Intelligence Center. Information Bulletin January 2001: OxyContin Diversion and Abuse. Johnstown, Pa: National Drug Intelligence Center. Product 2001-L0424-001. 2001. Available at: http://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs/651/651t.htm Accessed 02/13/2019.

National Drug Intelligence Center. National Drug Threat Assessment 2001: The Domestic Perspective. Johnstown, Pa: U.S. Department of Justice. Product 2001-SQ0317-001. 2000b. Available at: http://books.google.com/books/about/National_drug_threat_assessment_2001.html?id=JexlmaUMKRwC Accessed 02/13/2019.

NCCAM. Get the Facts: Acupuncture for Pain. NCCAM Online. 2009. Available at: http://www.medicalacupuncture.org/ForPatients/ArticlesByPhysiciansAboutAcupuncture/NCCAMAcupunctureInformation.aspx Accessed 02/13/2019.

NDIC. Methadone Diversion, Abuse, and Misuse: Deaths Increasing at Alarming Rate. National Drug Intelligence Center. 2010. Available at: http://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs25/25930/25930p.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Nicholas AS, Molloy AR, Brooker C. Using opioids with persisting noncancer pain: A biopsychosocial perspective. Clin J Pain. 2006; 22: 137–146. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16428947 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Nichols R. Pain Management in Patients with Addictive Disease. The American Journal of Nursing. 2003; 103(3): 87-90. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12626948 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP). Proper Disposal of Prescription Drugs. White House Drug Policy. 2009. Available at: http://www.whitehouse.gov/ondcp Accessed 02/13/2019.

Office of National Drug Control Policy. Pulse Check: trends in drug abuse, January-June 2002 reporting period. Publication NCJ-197242. 2002. Available at: https://www.ncjrs.gov/ondcppubs/publications/drugfact/pulsechk/pulse_nov02.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Oslund S, Robinson RC, Clark TM, et al. Long-term effectiveness of a comprehensive pain management program: strengthening the case for interdisciplinary care. Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent) . 2009; 22(3): 211-214. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2709080/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

Passik SD, Kirsh KL. Managing Pain in Patients With Aberrant Drug-Taking Behaviors. Journal of Supportive Oncology. 2005; 3(1): 83–86. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8008575_Managing_pain_in_patients_with_aberrant_drug-taking_behaviors Accessed 02/13/2019.

Passik SD, Kirsh KL. Opioid therapy in patients with a history of substance abuse. CNS Drugs. 2004; 18(1): 13-25. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8851374 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Passik SD. Issues in long-term opioid therapy: unmet needs, risks, and solutions. Mayo Clin Proc. 2009; 84(7): 593-601. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2704131/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

Passik, SD. Random Access of PMPs. Emerging Solutions in Pain. 2009. Available at: http://emergingsolutionsinpain.com/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

PCSS. XR-Naltrexone: A step-by-step guide. Provider’s Clinical Support System for Medicated Assisted Treatment. 2017. Available at: https://custom.cvent.com/10D3BAE39269457884C1D96DE1DF8D8D/files/b8f05ba83cfe4b859a8f5f72602878f0.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Pergolizzi J, et al. Towards a multidisciplinary team approach in chronic pain management. Change Pain. 2013. Available at: http://www.pae-eu.eu/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Multidisciplinary-approach-in-chronic-pain-management.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Rosen CS, Ouimette PC, Sheikh JI, Gregg JA, Moos RH. Physical and sexual abuse history and addiction treatment outcomes. Journal Studies on Alcohol. 2002; 63: 683-687. Available at: http://www.jsad.com/doi/abs/10.15288/jsa.2002.63.683 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Rudd RA. Increases in Drug and Opioid-Involved Overdose Deaths — United States, 2010–2015. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2016; 65. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/wr/mm655051e1.htm Accessed 02/13/2019.

SAMHSA. Managing chronic pain in adults with or in recovery from substance use disorders. Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series, No. 54 . 2012. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92046/#_ch4_s15_ Accessed 02/13/2019.

SAMHSA. Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings. NSDUH Series H-46, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 13-4795. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2013. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUHresultsPDFWHTML2013/Web/NSDUHresults2013.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

SAMHSA. SAMHSA opioid overdose prevention toolkit. 2014. Available at: https://store.samhsa.gov/product/Opioid-Overdose-Prevention-Toolkit/SMA18-4742 Accessed 02/13/2019.

SAMHSA. Use of buprenorphine in the pharmacologic management of opioid dependence. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2001. Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/treatment/buprenorphine Accessed 02/13/2019.

Savage SD, Kirsh KL, Passik, SD. Challenges in using opioids to treat pain in persons with substance use disorders. Addiction Science & Clinical Practice. 2008. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2797112/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

Savage SR. Management of Opioid Medications in Patients with Chronic Pain and Risk of Substance Abuse. Current Psychiatry Reports. 2009; 11: 377-384. Available at: SMA08-4138/SMA08-4138.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Savage SR. Principles of Pain Treatment in Addictive Disorders. Presentation at the American Psychiatric Association Annual Meeting. 2004. Available at: http://archives.drugabuse.gov/meetings/apa/ppt/savage.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Simeone R. Doctor shopping behavior and the diversion of opioid analgesics: 2008-2012. IMS Government Solutions . 2014. Available at: http://www.pdmpassist.org/pdf/Opioid_Diversion_08142014.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Solomon DH, Furst DE, Romain PL. Patient information: Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) . UpToDate. 2014. Available at: http://www.uptodate.com/contents/nonsteroidal-antiinflammatory-drugs-nsaids-beyond-the-basics Accessed 02/13/2019.

Stein DJ, Ipser JC, Seedat S. Pharmacotherapy for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews. 2006; 1. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16437445 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Stephens RC. The Street Addict Role: A Theory of Heroin Addiction. Albany: State University of New York Press. 1991. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/dp/0791406202 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. OxyContin®: Prescription Drug Abuse. CSAT Advisory. 2001(b): 1(1). Available at: https://www.ctclearinghouse.org/customer-content/www/topics/oxycontin_prescription_drug_abuse_062405.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary Care Clinicians. Rockville, Md: Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Treatment Improvement Protocol Series, No. 24. Publication (SMA) 02-3687. 1997. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64827/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies. The TEDS Report: Substance Abuse Treatment Admissions Involving Abuse of Pain Relievers: 1998 and 2008. Rockville, MD. 2010. Available at: http://oas.samhsa.gov/2k10/230/230PainRelvr2k10Web.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. Rockville, Md: Center For Substance Abuse Treatment. Treatment Improvement Protocol Series, No. 40, USDHHS Publication (SMA) 04-3939. 2004. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64766/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Advisory. Winter 2016; 15 (1). Available at: https://store.samhsa.gov/system/files/sma16-4938.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Aministration. Opioid Overdose Toolkit. SAMHSA. . Available at: http://evzio.com/hcp/about-naloxone/samhsa-opioid-overdose-toolkit.php Accessed 02/13/2019.

Taylor R, Raffa RB , Pergolizzi JV. Opioid formulations with sequestered naltrexone: a perspective review. Ther Adv Drug Saf. 2014; 5(3): 129-137. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4110852/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

Timko C, DeBenedetti A. A randomized controlled trial of intensive referral to 12-step self-help groups: one-year outcomes. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007; 90(2-3): 270-9. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=A+randomized+controlled+trial+of+intensive+referral+to+12-step+self-help+groups%3A+one-year+outcomes Accessed 02/13/2019.

Turk D, Gatchel R. Biopsychosocial perspective on chronic pain. Psychological approaches to pain management: A practitioner ‘s handbook. 2002. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17592957 Accessed 02/13/2019.

U.S. Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration. Dispensing Controlled Substances for the Treatment of Pain. Federal Register Notices. 2006; 71(172): 52715-52723. Available at: http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/fed_regs/notices/2006/fr09062.htm Accessed 02/13/2019.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Ultram (tramadol hydrochloride), Ultracet (tramadol hydrochloride/acetaminophen): Label Change. MedWatch: The FDA Safety Information and Adverse Event Reporting Program: Safety Information. 2010; Safety Alerts for Human Medical Products. Available at: Accessed 02/13/2019.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Final Recommendation Statement – Depression in Adults: Screening. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Website. 2016. Available at: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/RecommendationStatementFinal/depression-in-adults-screening1 Accessed 02/13/2019.

United States Department of Labor. Counselors. Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010-11 Edition. 2009. Available at: http://www.bls.gov/ooh/Community-and-Social-Service/School-and-career-counselors.htm Accessed 02/13/2019.

United States Department of Labor. Occupational Outlook Handbook: Physical Therapists. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2009. Available at: http://www.bls.gov/ooh/Healthcare/Physical-therapists.htm Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

US Department of Health and Human Services, SAMHSA. National Estimates of Drug-Related Emergency Department Visits. Drug Abuse Warning Network, 2011. 2013. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/DAWN2k11ED/DAWN2k11ED/DAWN2k11ED.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

USDHHS. Facing Addiction in America. The Surgeon General’s Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health. Surgeon General Reports. 2016. Available at: https://addiction.surgeongeneral.gov/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

VA/DoD. Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain. VA/DoD. 2010. Available at: https://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/Pain/cot/VADoDOTCPG022717.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

VA/DoD. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain. VA/DoC. 2003. Available at: http://www.ihs.gov/nc4/index.cfm Accessed 02/13/2019.

VAHPC. Risk evaluation & mitigation tool-kit: strategies to promote the safe use of opioids. Virginia Association for Hospices and Palliative Care (VAHPC) . 2012. Available at: https://opioidanalgesicrems.com/RpcUI/home.u Accessed 02/13/2019.

van Tulder M, Ostelo R, Vlaeyen J, Linton S, Morley S, Assendelft W. Behavioral treatment for chronic low back pain: A systematic review within the framework of the Cochrane Back Review Group. Spine. 2000; 25: 2688-2699. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11034658 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Vissers KCP, Besse K, Hans G, Devulder J, Morlion B. Opioid Rotation in the Management of Chronic Pain: Where Is the Evidence?. Pain Practice. 2010; 10(2): 85-93. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1533-2500.2009.00335.x/pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Vitiello MV, McCurry SM, Shortreed SM, et al. Cognitive-behavioral treatment for comorbid insomnia and osteoarthritis pain in primary care: the lifestyles randomized controlled trial. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013; 61(6): 947-56. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23711168 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Vowles KE, McCracken LM. Acceptance and values-based action in chronic pain: A study of treatment effectiveness and process. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2008; 76: 397-407. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18540733 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Waknine Y. FDA Approves 7-Day Buprenorphine Pain Patch. Medscape Today. 2010. Available at: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/724626 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Walker MJ, Webster LR. Risk factors for drug diversion in a pain clinic patient population . Journal of Opioid Management . 2012; 8(6): 351-62. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23264313 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Walsh S. FDA approves new hand-held auto-injector to reverse opioid overdose: First naloxone treatment specifically designed to be given by a family members or caregivers. FDA.gov. 2014. Available at: https://pcssnow.org/fda-approves-new-hand-held-auto-injector-reverse-opioid-overdose/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

Warner M, Chen LH, Makuc DM. Increase in fatal poisonings involving opioid analgesics in the United States, 1999-2006. NCHS Data Brief, no. 22. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2009. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db22.pdf Accessed 02/13/2019.

Weaver MF and Schnoll SH. Opioid Treatment of Chronic Pain in Patients with Addiction. Journal of Pain & Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 2002; 16(3): 2-26. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14640352 Accessed 02/13/2019.

WebMD. Acupuncture for Arthritis. 2007. Available at: http://www.webmd.com/rheumatoid-arthritis/guide/arthritis-acupuncture?page=2 Accessed 02/13/2019.

WebMD. Physical Therapy for Chronic Pain. WebMD’s online Pain Management Health Center. 2016. Available at: http://www.webmd.com/pain-management/physical-therapy Accessed 02/13/2019.

Webster L. Communication and risk strategies for individualized treatment plans. 2009. Available at: http://emergingsolutionsinpain.com/index.php?option=com_continued&view=material&Itemid=283&course=35&token=cdb4cce343d371c69ab43d4ba0394b94 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Webster LR, Dave B. Avoiding opioid abuse while managing pain. A guide for practitioners. North Branch, MN: Sunrise River Press. 2007. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/dp/0962481483 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Webster LR, Fine PG. Overdose deaths demand a new paradigm for opioid rotation. Pain Med. 2012; 13(4): 571-4. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22458858 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Webster LR, Webster RM. Predicting aberrant behaviors in opioid-treated patients: Preliminary validation of the Opioid Risk Tool. Pain Medicine. 2005; 6(6): 432-442. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16336480 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Webster LR. Methadone-related deaths. Pain Med. 2011; 1(4): 211-7. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21668754 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Webster, L. Misuse. Emerging Solutions in Pain. Knowledge Library. 2010. Available at: http://emergingsolutionsinpain.com/ Accessed 02/13/2019.

Wiedemer NL, Harden PS, Arndt IO, Gallagher RM. The Opioid Renewal Clinic: A primary care, managed approach to opioid therapy in chronic pain patients at risk for substance abuse. Pain Medicine. 2007; 8(7): 573-584. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-4637.2006.00254.x/abstract Accessed 02/13/2019.

Workman E & Hendrix J. Anxiety and depression in a psychiatrically informed pain medicine practice. CMP Media LLC. 2007. Available at: http://pro.psychcentral.com/anxiety-and-depression-in-a-psychiatrically-informed-pain-medicine-practice/00562.html Accessed 02/13/2019.

Ziegler PP. Addiction and the Treatment of Pain. Substance Use and Misuse. 2005; 40(1): 1945-1954. Available at: http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10826080500294841 Accessed 02/13/2019.

Due to the widespread extent of the opioid epidemic and patients with chronic pain (Volkow et al., 2016), physicians are seeing a high rate of relatively more challenging problems, such as opioid addiction, drug-related aberrant behavior, and diversion (CDC, 2016; SAMHSA, 2016). After a review of the evidence, the FDA concluded that physicians need training in evidence-based opioid prescribing and provided an outline for the content of the training needed (FDA, 2017). Providing training in opioid prescribing that emphasized the more challenging aspects of opioid prescribing while following the recommended training outline, will help physicians improve patient outcomes (CASA, 2005).

Practice Gap References

Adams NJ, Plane MB, Fleming MF, et al. Opioids and the Treatment of Chronic Pain in a Primary Care Sample. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2001; 22: 791-796. Accessed on: 2015-09-21.
Agency for Healthcare Research (AHRQ). Technical Brief: Multidisciplinary Pain Programs for Chronic non-cancer Pain. Effective Research Programs. Research Protocols. 2010. Available at: http://www.effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov Accessed on: 2010-10-25.
Califano, JA et al. Under the Counter: The Diversion and Abuse of Controlled Prescription Drugs in the U.S. The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University. 2005. Available at: http://www.centeronaddiction.org/addiction-research/reports/under-the-counter-diversion-abuse-controlled-perscription-drugs Accessed on: 2013-09-13.
Chou R, Fanciullo G, Fine P, et al. Clinical guidelines for the use of chronic opioid therapy in chronic noncancer pain. J Pain. 2009; 10(2): 113-130. Available at: http://www.jpain.org/article/S1526-5900(08)00831-6/abstract
Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain — United States, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016; ePub: March 2016: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1er. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/rr/rr6501e1.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-16.
FDA. FDA Education Blueprint for Health Care Providers Involved in the Management or Support of Patients with Pain (May 2017). . 2017; May: . Available at: https://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/NewsEvents/UCM557071.pdf Accessed on: 2018-02-22.
Fishbain DA, Cole B, Lewis J, Rosomoff HL, Rosomoff RS. What percentage of chronic nonmalignant pain patients exposed to chronic opioid analgesic therapy develop abuse/addiction and/or aberrant drug-related behaviors? A structured evidence-based review.. Pain Med. 2008; 9(4): 444-59. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18489635 Accessed on: 2013-09-13.
Hughes A, Williams MR, Lipari RN, et al. Prescription Drug Use and Misuse in the United States: Results from the 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. SAMHSA. 2016. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-FFR2-2015/NSDUH-FFR2-2015.htm Accessed on: 2016-09-13.
Jamison RN, Gintner L, Rogers JF, et al. Disease Management for Chronic Pain: Barriers of Program Implementation with Primary Care Physicians . Pain Medicine. 2002; 3(2): 92-101. Accessed on: 2015-09-21.
Morley-Forster PK, Clark AJ, Speechley M, et al. Attitudes Toward Opioid Use for Chronic Pain: A Canadian Physician Survey. Pain Res Manage. 2003; 8: 189-94. Accessed on: 2015-09-21.
Reisfield GM, Salazar E, Bertholf RL. Review: rational use and interpretation of urine drug testing in chronic opioid therapy. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 2007; 37(4): 301-314. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000286 Accessed on: 2013-09-16.
Tellioglu T. The Use of Urine Drug Testing to Monitor Patients Receiving Chronic Opioid Therapy for Persistent Pain Conditions. Med Health R I . 2008; 91(9): 279-280, 282. Accessed on: 2015-09-21.
The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (CASA). Missed Opportunity: National Survey of Primary Care Physicians and Patients on Substance Abuse. The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University, Survey Research Laboratory. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois at Chicago. 2000. Available at: http://www.centeronaddiction.org/addiction-research/reports/national-survey-primary-care-physicians-patients-substance-abuse Accessed on: 2014-04-28.
Volkow ND, McClellan AT. Opioid Abuse in Chronic Pain — Misconceptions and Mitigation Strategies. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2016; 374: 1253-1263. Available at: http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra1507771 Accessed on: 2016-04-22.

Based on an extensive review of evidence and expert consensus, the FDA determined that all health care providers involved in pain management need training in safe opioid prescribing (FDA, 2017). Patients having opioid addiction or misuse are frequently encountered in primary care due to the alarming extent of the opioid epidemic: 11.8 million people aged 12 or older misuse of pain relievers (SAMHSA, 2016). Rates of overdose, diversion, and addiction rose in parallel with prescribing rates, suggesting that opioid prescribing is a contributing factor. Provider training in the fundamental opioid prescribing skills will help patients who misuse opioids (CASA, 2005).

Practice Gap References

AAPI. Use of Opioids for the Treatment of Chronic Pain, A statement from the American Academy of Pain Medicine. The American Academy of Chronic Pain. 2013. Available at: http://www.painmed.org/files/use-of-opioids-for-the-treatment-of-chronic-pain.pdf Accessed on: 2013-07-18.

AAPS. Project: Communicate and Cooperate; AAPS 3-Point Plan to Stop the “Drug War on Physicians” & Reduce Prescription Drug Abuse. Association of American Physicians and Surgeons, Inc.. 2009. Available at: http://www.aapsonline.org/painman/cooperate.htm Accessed on: 2009-12-04.

Ablin J, Fitzcharles M, Buskila D, Shir Y, Sommer C, Häuser W. Treatment of fibromyalgia syndrome: Recommendations of recent evidence-based interdisciplinary guidelines with special emphasis on complementary and alternative therapies. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2013. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3856149/ Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Abrams D, Couey P, Shade SB, et al.. Cannabinoid-opioid interaction in chronic pain. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2011; 90(6): 844-51. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22048225 Accessed on: 2016-03-09.

ACPM . Use, abuse, misuse, and disposal of prescription pain medication clinical reference. American College Preventive Medicine . 2011. Available at: http://www.acpm.org/?UseAbuseRxClinRef Accessed on: 2015-07-07.

Adams et al. Development of a self-report screening instrument for assessing potential opioid medication misuse in chronic pain patients. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2004; 27: 440-459. Available at: http://www.jpsmjournal.com/article/S0885-3924(04)00101-0/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Adams LL, Gatchel RJ, Robinson RC, et al. Development of a self-report screening instrument for assessing potential opioid medication misuse in chronic pain patients. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2004; 27: 440-459. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15120773

ADAPT Research Group, Martin BK, Szekely C, et al.. Cognitive function over time in the Alzheimer’s Disease Anti-inflammatory Prevention Trial (ADAPT): results of a randomized, controlled trial of naproxen and celecoxib. Arch Neurol. 2008; 65: 895-905. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18474729 Accessed on: 2016-02-03.

Agency Medical Directors’ Group. Interagency Guideline on Opioid Dosing for Chronic Non-cancer Pain: An educational aid to improve care and safety with opioid therapy. Washington State Agency Medical Directors Group. 2010. Available at: http://www.agencymeddirectors.wa.gov/Files/OpioidGdline.pdf Accessed on: 2013-09-06.

Aggarwal A, Kumar R, Sharma RC, Sharma DD. Persistent dystonia following opioid withdrawal.. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry. 2011; 35(2): 640. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20685372 Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Alford DP, Compton P, Samet JH. Acute Pain Management for Patients Receiving Maintenance Methadone or Buprenorphine Therapy. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2006; 144(2): 127-134. Available at: http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=719514 Accessed on: 2009-11-05.

AMA. Promote safe storage and disposal of opioids and all medications.. AMA-ASSN.org. 2017. Available at: https://www.ama-assn.org/sites/default/files/media-browser/public/government/advocacy/opioid-safe-storage-and-disposal.pdf Accessed on: 2017-04-07.

American Academy of Pain Medicine, American Pain Society and American Society of Addiction Medicine. Definitions related to the use of opioids for the treatment of pain. . 2001. Available at: http://opi.areastematicas.com/generalidades/definicionesopiaceos.AAPM.pdf Accessed on: 2010-05-18.

American Academy of Pain Medicine. Long-term Controlled Substances Therapy for Chronic Pain Sample Agreement. American Academy of Pain Medicine. 2001. Available at: https://www.musc.edu/cce/ORDFRMS/pdf/all_all_consent_narcoticmanagementagreement.pdf Accessed on: 2014-05-23.

American Geriatrics Society. Pharmacological management of persistent pain in older persons. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 2009; 57(8): 1331-1346. Available at: http://www.americangeriatrics.org/files/documents/2009_Guideline.pdf Accessed on: 2013-09-16.

American Pain Foundation. Target Chronic Pain Notebook. American Pain Foundation. 2004; updated 2008. Available at: http://www.champ-program.org/static/TargetNotebook.pdf Accessed on: 2014-11-21.

American Pain Society in conjunction with the American Academy of Pain Medicine. Guideline for the Use of Chronic Opioid Therapy in Chronic Noncancer Pain. Evidence Review. . American Pain Society. 2009. Available at: http://americanpainsociety.org/uploads/education/guidelines/chronic-opioid-therapy-cncp.pdfAccessed on: 2010-09-07.

American Pain Society. Pain: Current Understanding of Assessment, Management, and Treatment, Section III: Types of Treatments. American Pain Society . 2006. Available at: http://americanpainsociety.org/uploads/education/npc.pdf Accessed on: 2013-08-13.

American Psychiatric Association (APA). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. American Psychiatric Association. 5th ed. 2013. Available at: https://www.amazon.com/Diagnostic-Statistical-Manual-Mental-Disorders/dp/0890425558/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1492003452&sr=1-1&keywords=dsm+5 Accessed on: 2013-09-16.

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). American Psychiatric Association. 2013; 5: . Available at: http://www.appi.org/products/dsm-manual-of-mental-disorders Accessed on: 2013-07-30.

American Psychological Association. Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9 & PHQ-2). APA.com. 2013. Available at: http://www.apa.org/pi/about/publications/caregivers/practice-settings/assessment/tools/patient-health.aspx Accessed on: 2013-07-18.

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Use of Medications in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use. . June 1, 2015. Available at: http://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/practice-support/guidelines-and-consensus-docs/asam-national-practice-guideline-supplement1b630f9472bc604ca5b7ff000030b21a.pdf?sfvrsn=0 Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

American Society of Anesthesiologists. The Management of Pain. www.asahq.org. 2010. Available at: http://www.asahq.org/ Accessed on: 2010-07-16.

Antman EM, Bennett JS, Daugherty A, et al. Use of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs: an update for clinicians: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2007; 115: 1634-1642. Available at: http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/115/12/1634.long Accessed on: 2016-02-03.

Antoin H, Beasley RD. Opioids for chronic noncancer pain: tailoring the therapy to fit the patient and the pain. Postgrad Med. 2004; 116(3): 37-40, 43-44. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15460088 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Antonucci R, Zaffanello M, Puxeddu E, Porcella A, Cuzzonlin L, Pilloni MD, Fanos V. Use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in pregnancy: Impact on the fetus and newborn. Current Drug Metabolism. 2012; 13: 474-490. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22299823 Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

ASAM. Summary of the Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act. ASAM Advocacy. 2016. Available at: http://www.asam.org/advocacy/issues/opioids/summary-of-the-comprehensive-addiction-and-recovery-act Accessed on: 2016-09-19.

Avouac J, Gossec L, Dougados M. Efficacy and safety of opioids for osteoarthritis: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2007; 15(8): 957-65.

Bair MJ, Polshuck EL, Wu J, Krebs EK, Damush TM, Tu W, Kroenke K. Anxiety but not social stressors predict 12-month depression and pain severity. The Clinical Journal of Pain. 2013; 29: 95-101. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23183264 Accessed on: 2015-07-07.

Baldisseri MR. Impaired healthcare professional. Crit Care Med. 2007; 35(2): S106-16. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17242598 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Ballantyne, JC, Mao, J. Opioid therapy for chronic pain. N Engl J Med. 2003; 349(20): 1943-53. Available at: http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra025411Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Banta-Green CJ, Merrill JO, Doyle SR, Boudreau DM, Calsyn DA. Opioid use behaviors, mental health and pain-development of a typology of chronic pain patients. Drug Alcohol Depend. In Press Epub. 2009. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2716214/ Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Barnett E, Spruijt-Metz D, Unger JB, Sun P, Rohrback LA, Sussman S. Boosting a teen substance use prevention program with motivational interviewing. Substance Use & Misuse. 2012; 47: 418-428. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22216936 Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Baron R, Binder A, Wasner G. Neuropathic pain: Diagnosis, pathophysiological mechanisms, and treatment. The Lancet Neurology. 2010; 9: 807-819. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20650402 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Belgrade MJ, Schamber CD, Lindgren BR . The DIRE score: predicting outcomes of opioid prescribing for chronic pain. J Pain. 2006; 7: 671-81. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16942953 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Bennetto L, Patel NK, Fuller G. Trigeminal neuralgia and its management. BMJ. 2007; 334: 201-205. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1782012/ Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Benyamin R, et al. Opioid Complications and Side Effects. Pain Physician. 2008; 11: 105-120. Available at: http://www.painphysicianjournal.com Accessed on: 2013-07-23.

Berland, D, Rodgers P. Use of opioids for management of chronic nonterminal pain. Am Fam Physician. 2012; 86(3): 252-258. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2012/0801/p252.html Accessed on: 2013-09-06.

Bingham C, Ruffing V. Rheumatoid arthritis treatment. Johns Hopkins Arthritis Center. 2013. Available at: http://www.hopkinsarthritis.org/arthritis-info/rheumatoid-arthritis/ra-treatment/ Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

BMJ Publishing Group. Opioid overdose. http://bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/verify-user-north-american-access.html. 2011; October 27: . Available at: http://bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/monograph/339/treatment/step-by-step.html Accessed on: 2012-05-21.

Boscarino JA, Rukstalis MR, Hoffman SN, et al. Prevalence of prescription opioid-use disorder among chronic pain patients: comparison of the DSM-5 vs. DSM-4 diagnostic criteria. J Addict Dis. 2011; 30(3): 185-94. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21745041 Accessed on: 2012-11-14.

Briley M, Moret C. Treatment of comorbid pain with serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors. CNS Spectr. 2008; 13(7): 22-26.

Brown KS. Integrating Risk Assessment in Opioid Prescribing for Persistent Pain Management. Integrative Pain Center, Tripler Army Medical Center. 2009. Available at: https://pision-rehabpsych.squarespace.com/ Accessed on: 2010-07-22.

Brown RL, Rounds LA. Conjoint screening questionnaires for alcohol and other drug abuse: criterion validity in a primary care practice. Wis Med J. 1995; 94: 135-40. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7778330 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Brushwood DB. Electronic prescription monitoring programs: a data-reporting tool designed to prevent drug persion. Emerging Solutions in Pain Knowledge Series III. MediCom Worldwide, Inc. 2007. Available at: http://www.emergingsolutionsinpain.com/index.php?option=com_continued&cat=20&Itemid=267 Accessed on: 2014-08-05.

Brushwood DB. Maximizing the value of electronic prescription monitoring programs. Journal of Law, Medicine, and Ethics. 2003; 31: 41-54. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1748-720X.2003.tb00058.x/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Burroughs VJ, Maxey RW, Levy RA. Racial and ethnic differences in response to medicines: Toward inpidualized pharmaceutical treatment. J National Medical Assoc. 2002; 9(10): . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2594139/ Accessed on: 2012-05-22.

Butler SF , Budman SH, Fernandez KC, et al. Cross-validation of a screener to predict opioid misuse in chronic pain patients (SOAPP-R). J Addict Med . 2010. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2712300/ Accessed on: 2015-07-14.

Butler SF, Budman SH, Fernandez KC, et al. Development and validation of the current opioid misuse measure. Pain. 2007; 130(1-2): 144-156. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1950245/ Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Butler SF, Fernandez K, Benoit C, et al. Validation of the Revised Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients in Pain (SOAPP-R). J Pain. 2008; 9: 360-372.

CADCA. Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act (CARA). CADCA.org. 2016. Available at: http://www.cadca.org/comprehensive-addiction-and-recovery-act-caraAccessed on: 2016-09-19.

Califano, JA et al. Under the Counter: The persion and Abuse of Controlled Prescription Drugs in the U.S. The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University. 2005. Available at: http://www.centeronaddiction.org/addiction-research/reports/under-the-counter-persion-abuse-controlled-perscription-drugs Accessed on: 2013-09-13.

Campbell CM, Edwards RR. Ethnic differences in pain and pain management. Pain Management. 2012; 2: 219-230. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3654683/ Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Carter GT, Aggarwal SK. Cannabis in the treatment of chronic pain. NABP 2009 Symposium. 2009. Available at: https://www.nabp.net/events/assets/Carter_Aggarwal.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-09.

CASA. National Survey of American Attitudes on Substance Abuse XIII: Teens and Parents. National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse. 2008. Available at: http://www.centeronaddiction.org/addiction-research/reports/national-survey-american-attitudes-substance-abuse-teens-parents-2008

CDC. Unintentional Drug Poisoning in the United States . CDC. 2010; July: . Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5605a1.htm Accessed on: 2012-05-25.

Center for Disease Control. Prescription Painkiller Overdoses, Use and Abuse of Methadone as a Painkiller. CDC Vital Signs. 2012. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/vitalsigns/MethadoneOverdoses/ Accessed on: 2013-07-18.

Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER). Abuse-deterrent opioids – evaluation and labeling . U.S Department of Health and Human Services. 2015. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/drugs/guidancecomplianceregulatoryinformation/guidances/ucm334743.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-07.

Center for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) . What is a prescriber’s role in preventing the persion of prescription drugs?. Partners in Integrity . 2014. Available at: http://www.cms.gov/medicare-medicaid-coordination/fraud-prevention/medicaid-integrity-education/provider-education-toolkits/downloads/prescriber-role-drugpersion.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series 42. DHHS Publication No. (SMA) 05-3922. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Substance Abuse Treatment for Persons With Co-Occurring Disorders. 2005. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64197/ Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Chabal C, Erjavec MK, Jacobson L, Mariano A, Chaney E. Prescription opiate abuse in chronic pain patients: clinical criteria, incidence and predictors. Clin J Pain. 1997; 13(2): 150-155. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9186022 Accessed on: 2014-05-23.

Chan B, Tam LK, Wat CY, et al. Opioids in chronic non-cancer pain. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy. 2011; 12(5): 705-720. Available at: http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.1517/14656566.2011.536335?journalCode=eop Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Chou R, Amir Q, Snow V, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of low back pain: A joint clinical practice guideline from the Americn College of Physicians and the American Pain Society. American College of Physicians. 2007; 147(7): 478-491. Available at: http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=736814 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Chou R, Ballantyne J, Fanciullo G, et al. Research Gaps on Use of Opioids for Chronic Noncancer Pain: Findings From a Review of the Evidence for an American Pain Society and American Academy of Pain Medicine Clinical Practice Guideline. J Pain. 2009b; 10(2): 147-159.

Chou R, Fanciullo G, Fine P, et al. Clinical guidelines for the use of chronic opioid therapy in chronic noncancer pain. J Pain. 2009; 10(2): 113-130. Available at: http://www.jpain.org/article/S1526-5900(08)00831-6/abstract

Chou R, Fanciullo GJ, Fine PG, et al. Opioids for chronic noncancer pain: prediction and identification of aberrant drug-related behaviors: a review of evidence for an American Pain Society and American Academy of Pain Medicine Clinical Practice Guideline. J Pain. 2009a; 10(2): 131-146. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19187890 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Cicero JT, Dart RC, Inciardi JA, Woody GE, Schnoll S, Munoz A. The Development of a Comprehensive Risk-Management Program for Prescription Opioid Analgesics: Researched Abuse, persion, and Addiction-Related Surveillance (RADARS). Pain Medicine. 2007; 8(2): 157-169. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17305687 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Cicero TJ, Inciardi JA, Munoz A. Trends in abuse of Oxycontin and other opioid analgesics in the United States: 2002–2004. J Pain. 2005; 6(10): 662–672. Available at: http://www.jpain.org/article/S1526-5900(05)00656-5/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Cleveland Clinic. Acute vs. Chronic Pain. Treatments & Procedures. 2008. Available at: http://my.clevelandclinic.org/services/anesthesiology/pain-management/diseases-conditions/hic-acute-vs-chronic-pain Accessed on: 2014-08-21.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Assessing pain with PQRSTU. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/cKR27q9g-_o Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Introduction to Buprenorphine. www.buppractice.com. 2009. Available at: http://www.buppractice.com/node/12446 Accessed on: 2010-07-13.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. When to Refer Patients to Specialized Substance Abuse Treatment. www.buppractice.com. 2009. Available at: http://www.buppractice.com/howtorefer

CMS. Calendar Year (CY) 2016 Clinical Laboratory Fee Schedule (CLFS) Preliminary Determinations. . 2016. Available at: https://www.cms.gov/Medicare/Medicare-Fee-for-Service-Payment/ClinicalLabFeeSched/Downloads/CLFS-CY2016-Preliminary-Payment-Determinations.pdf Accessed on: 2016-01-12.

Cole, BE. Recognizing and Preventing Medication persion. Family Practice Management. 2001; 8(9): 37-41. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/fpm/2001/1000/p37.html Accessed on: 2013-09-16.

Cole, E. Recognizing preventing and medication persion: Don’t let persion of pain medication hamper your ability to treat chronic pain. Family Practice Management. 2001; 8(2): 37-41. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/fpm/2001/1000/p37.html Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Compton P, Darakjian J, Miotto K. Screening for addiction in patients with chronic pain and “problematic” substance use: evaluation of a pilot assessment tool. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1998; 16: 355-363. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9879160 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Compton P, Wu SM, Schieffer B, Pham Q, Naliboff BD. Introduction to a self-report version of the Prescription Drug Use Questionnaire and relationship to medication agreement noncompliance. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2008; 36: 383-395. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2630195/ Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Compton P. Should Opioid Abusers be Discharged from Opioid-Analgesic Therapy?. Pain Medicine. 2008; 9(4): 383-390. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18489627 Accessed on: 2014-05-01.

Compton P. The role of urine toxicology in chronic opioid analgesic therapy. Pain Manag Nurs. 2007; 8(4): 166-172. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18036504 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Compton P. Urine toxicology screening: a case study. Emerging Solutions in Pain. 2009. Available at: http://www.emergingsolutionsinpain.com Accessed on: 2009-05-06.

Compton, Peggy. Substance Abuser with Chronic Pain. QuantiaMD. 2010; courseid=30793: . Available at: http://Quantiamd.com Accessed on: 2010-09-07.

Cone et al. Urine drug testing of chronic pain patients: licit and illicit drug patterns. J Anal Toxicol. 2008; 32: 530-543. Available at: http://jat.oxfordjournals.org/content/32/8/530.long Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Coolen, P. Overdose deaths involving prescription opioids among Medicaid enrollees—Washington, 2004-2007. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR). 2009; 58(42): 1171-75. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5842a1.htm Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Cornish MA , Wade NG. Spirituality and religion in group counseling: a literature review with practical guidelines . American Psychological Association . 2010. Available at: http://www.researchgate.net/publication/232591847_Spirituality_and_Religion_in_Group_Counseling_A_Literature_Review_With_Practice_GuidelinesAccessed on: 2015-06-30.

Couper FJ, Logan BK. NHTSA Drugs and Human Performance Fact Sheets (rev 2014). . 2014. Available at: http://www.nhtsa.gov/people/injury/research/job185drugs/technical-page.htm Accessed on: 2015-06-29.

Covidien. EXALGO(TM) Risk Evaluation & Mitigation Strategy. EXALGO(TM) Risk Evaluation & Mitigation Strategy. 2011.

Coxib and traditional NSAID Trialists’ (CNT) Collaboration, Bhala N, Bhala N, et al. Vascular and upper gastrointestinal effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: meta-analyses of inpidual participant data from randomised trials. Lancet. 2013; 382: 769-779. Available at: http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(13)60900-9/abstract Accessed on: 2016-02-03.

Dahan A, et. al.. Incidence, Reversal, and Prevention of Opioid-induced Respiratory Depression. Anesthesiology. 2010; 112: 226-238. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20010421 Accessed on: 2013-07-23.

Dais J, Khosia A, Doulatram G. The successful treatment of opioid withdrawal-induced refractory muscle spasms with 5-HTP in a patient intolerant to clonidine. Pain Physician. 2015; 18: E417-E420. Available at: http://www.painphysicianjournal.com/ Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Dart R. Evaluation of ADFs using RADARS system data . RADARS System. 2011. Available at: http://www.thblack.com/links/RSD/RADARS(R)%20System_2011%20Annual%20Meeting%20Summary.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-08.

Dart, RC. Opioid Abuse, Misuse, and persion: Strategies for Prevention. Researched Abuse, persion and Addiction-Related Surveillance (RADARS). 2009: 11-25. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-4637.2006.00259.x/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Dasgupta N . RADARS system subutex & suboxone: how much is prescribed vs. abuse/persion reports . SAMHSA Meeting on Buprenorphine. 2010. Available at: http://162.99.3.219/presentations/Dasgupta.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-08.

Davis, JL. Chronic Pain Relief: New Treatments. WebMD. 2011. Available at: http://www.webmd.com/pain-management/features/chronic-pain-relief-new-treatmentsAccessed on: 2011-03-10.

De Gregori S, De Gregori M, Ranzani GN, et al. Morphine metabolism, transport and brain disposition. Metabolic Brain Disease. 2012; 27(1): 1-5. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22193538 Accessed on: 2015-06-29.

DEA. Pharmacist’s Manual – an informational outline of the controlled substances act . Office of persion Control . 2010. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/pubs/manuals/pharm2/index.html Accessed on: 2015-07-07.

DEA. Schedules of Controlled Substances: Placement of Tramadol Into Schedule IV. DEA Office of persion Control Website. 2014; Rules – 2014: 21 CFR Part 1308 Docket No. DEA-351. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/fed_regs/rules/2014/fr0702.htm Accessed on: 2014-08-07.

Deding M , Saidj M , Brännström L. 12-step programs for reducing illicit drug use: protocol for a systematic review . The Campbell Collaboration . 2013. Available at: http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/lib/project/174/ Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Deyo RA, Von Korff M, Duhrkoop D. Opioids for low back pain. The British Medical Journal. 2015; 350: g6380. Available at: http://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.g6380 Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Donahue KE, Gartlehner G, Jonas DE. Systematic review: comparative effectiveness and harms of disease modifying medications for rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Intern Med. 2008; 148: 124-134.

Dowell D , Kunins HV, Farley TA. Opioid analgesics – risky drugs, not risky patients . JAMA . 2013; 309(21): . Available at: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1686609 Accessed on: 2015-07-08.

Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain — United States, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016; ePub: March 2016: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1er. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/rr/rr6501e1.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-16.

Dowling LS, Gatchel RJ, Adams LL, Stowell AW, Bernstein D. An evaluation of the predictive validity of the Pain Medication Questionnaire with a heterogeneous group of patients with chronic pain. J Opioid Manag. 2007; 3: 257-266. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18181380 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN). Highlights of the 2009 Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) findings on drug-related emergency department visits. http://www.samhsa.gov. 2010. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov Accessed on: 2011-01-11.

Drug and Alcohol Services Information System (DASIS). Characteristics of Primary Prescription and OTC Treatment Admissions: 2002. The DASIS Report, Office of Applied Studies, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2004. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/node/20 Accessed on: 2014-10-31.

Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). Automation of Reports and Consolidated Orders System (ARCOS). U.S. Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration, Office of persion Control. 2009. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/arcos/index.html Accessed on: 2009-12-07.

Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). Practitioner’s manual – an informational outline of the controlled substances act . Office of persion Control . 2006. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/pubs/manuals/pract/pract_manual012508.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). State Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs: Questions & Answers. U.S. Department of Justice. 2008. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/faq/rx_monitor.htm Accessed on: 2009-06-24.

Drug Enforcement Administration. State Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs. U.S. Department of Justice. 2009. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/faq/rx_monitor.htm Accessed on: 2009-12-04.

Drug Enforcement Administration. State Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs. U.S. Department of Justice. 2010. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/faq/rx_monitor.htm Accessed on: 2010-09-17.

Drugs.com. Naloxone. FDA Professional Drug Information. Copyright 2000-2015; Last updated Jan-Feb, 2015: . Available at: http://www.drugs.com/pro/naloxone.html Accessed on: 2015-02-02.

Dublin S, Walker RL, Jackson ML, Nelson JC , Weiss NS , Von Korff M, Jackson LA. Use of Opioids or Benzodiazepines and Risk of Pneumonia in Older Adults: A Population-Based Case-Control Study. J Am Geriatr Soc.. 2011; 59: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3223721/ Accessed on: 2013-09-13.

Dunn KM, Saunders KW, Rutter CM, et al. Opioid prescriptions for chronic pain and overdose: a cohort study. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2010; 152(2): 85-92. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3000551/ Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

DuPont RL, McLellan AT, White WL, Merlo LJ, Gold MS. Setting the standard for recovery: physicians’ health programs. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2009; 36: 159-171. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19161896 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Dysvik E , Kvaløy JT , Natvig GK. The effectiveness of an improved multidisciplinary pain management programme: a 6- and 12-month follow-up study.. J Adv Nurs . 2012; 68(5): 1061-72. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22050304 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Eccher DF. Maine’s Prescription Monitoring Program: Preventing Prescription Drug Misuse. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Substance Abuse. 2009. Available at: http://www.maine.gov/dhhs/osa/data/pmp/files/ME_PMP_Intro_20090113.pdf Accessed on: 2009-06-25.

Eggleston W, Clark KH, Marraffa JM. Loperamide abuse associated with cardiac dysrhythmia and death. Annals of Emergency Medicine. 2016; DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.annemergmed.2016.03.047: . Available at: http://www.annemergmed.com/article/S0196-0644(16)30052-X/fulltext Accessed on: 2016-05-04.

Ehde DM, Dillworth TM, Turner JA. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for inpiduals with chronic pain. American Psychological Association. 2014; 69: 153-166. Available at: https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/amp-a0035747.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-02.

Emmons K, Rollnick S. Motivational interviewing in health care settings. Opportunities and limitations. Am J Prev Med. 2001; 20(1): 68-74. Available at: http://www.ajpmonline.org/article/S0749-3797(00)00254-3/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Erdemoglu AK, Koc R. Brief Pain Inventory score identifying and discriminating neuropathic and nociceptive pain. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica. 2013; 128: 351-358. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23594114 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

FDA. Blueprint for Prescriber Continuing Education Program 2011 (rev 2013). http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/rems/ERLA%20Opioids_2014-12-29_FDA%20BLUEPRINT%20FOR%20PRESCRIBER%20EDUCATION.pdf. 2011. Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/rems/ERLA%20Opioids_2014-12-29_FDA%20BLUEPRINT%20FOR%20PRESCRIBER%20EDUCATION.pdf Accessed on: 2012-05-18.

FDA. ER/LA Opioid Analgesic Class Labeling Changes and Postmarket Requirements. New Safety Measures Announced for Extended-release and Long-acting Opioids. 2013. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/InformationbyDrugClass/UCM367697.pdf Accessed on: 2014-08-22.

FDA. FDA announces enhanced warnings for immediate-release opioid pain medications related to risks of misuse, abuse, addiction, overdose and death. FDA News Release. March 22, 2016. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm491739.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-25.

FDA. FDA announces safety labeling changes and postmarket study requirements for extended-release and long-acting opioid analgesics. FDA Website. 2013. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/newsevents/newsroom/pressannouncements/ucm367726.htm Accessed on: 2014-08-01.

FDA. FDA approves injectable drug to treat opioid-dependent patients. U.S. Food and Drug Administration Website. 2010; October 12: . Available at: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm229109.htm Accessed on: 2010-10-26.

FDA. FDA Drug Safety Communication: FDA warns about several safety issues with opioid pain medicines; requires label changes . . 3/22/2016. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm489676.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-24.

Federation of State Medical Boards of the United States. Model policy for the use of controlled substances for the treatment of pain. Federation of State Medical Boards of the United States, Inc. 2004. Available at: http://www.fsmb.org/ Accessed on: 2010-05-13.

Ferri CM. Defining Opioid Tolerance and Dependency. Journal of Pain and Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 2013; 27: 392-393. Available at: http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.3109/15360288.2013.847518?journalCode=ppc Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Fine PG. Opioid Rotation. J Pain Symptom Management. 2009. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19735902 Accessed on: 2012-05-18.

Fingerhut, LA. Increases in poisoning and methadone-related deaths: United States, 1999-2005. National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). 2008. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/poisoning/poisoning.pdf Accessed on: 2010-03-05.

Fishbain DA, Cole B, Lewis J, Rosomoff HL, Rosomoff RS. What percentage of chronic nonmalignant pain patients exposed to chronic opioid analgesic therapy develop abuse/addiction and/or aberrant drug-related behaviors? A structured evidence-based review.. Pain Med. 2008; 9(4): 444-59. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18489635 Accessed on: 2013-09-13.

Fishman SM, Bandman TB, Edwards A, Borsook D. The opioid contract in the management of chronic pain. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1999; 18(1): 6-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10439570 Accessed on: 2013-09-13.

Fitzgibbon DR, Rathmell JP, Michna E, Stephens LS, Posner KL, Domino KB. Malpractice claims associated with medication management for chronic pain. Anesthesiology. 2010; 112(4): 777-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20234314 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Fleeter TB. Informed consent: More than just a signature. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. 2010. Available at: http://www.aaos.org/news/aaosnow/jan10/managing4.asp Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Florida Legislature. Health Professions and Occupations: General Provisions . Online Sunshine. 2013. Available at: http://www.leg.state.fl.us/statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&URL=0400-0499/0456/0456.html Accessed on: 2013-07-30.

Fosbol EL, Folke F, Jacobsen S, et al. Cause-specific cardiovascular risk associated with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs among healthy inpiduals. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2010; 3: 395-405. Available at: http://circoutcomes.ahajournals.org/content/3/4/395.full Accessed on: 2016-02-03.

Frank E, Carrera JS, Elon L, Hertzberg VS. Basic demographics, health practices, and health status of US medical students. American Journal of Preventative Medicine. 2006; 31(6): 499-505. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17169711 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Frank E, Elon L, Naimi T, Brewer R. Alcohol consumption and alcohol counseling behavior among US medical students: cohort study. BMJ. 2008; 337:a2155: 1-10. Available at: http://www.bmj.com/content/337/bmj.a2155 Accessed on: 2010-08-18.

Freeman HP, Payne S. Racial injustice in health care. N Engl J Med. 2000; 342: 1045-1047. Available at: http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200004063421411 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Freynhagen R, Geisslinger G, Schug SA. Opioids for chronic non-cancer pain. British Medical Journal. 2013; 346: . Available at: http://www.bmj.com/content/346/bmj.f2937 Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

FSMB. Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office. FSMB Website http://www.fsmb.org. 2013. Available at: https://www.fsmb.org/Media/Default/PDF/FSMB/Advocacy/2013_model_policy_treatment_opioid_addiction.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-22.

Galanter M, Dermatis H, Mansky P, McIntyre J, Perez-Fuentes G. Substance-abusing physicians: monitoring and twelve-step-based treatment. American Journal on Addictions. 2007; 16:2: 117-123. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17453613 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Galvez R, Perez C. Is morphine still the best reference opioid?. Future Medicine. 2012; 2(1): 33-45. Available at: http://www.futuremedicine.com/doi/abs/10.2217/pmt.11.78 Accessed on: 2015-06-29.

Garra G, Singer AJ, Taira BR, et al. Validation of the Wong-Baker FACES pain rating scale in pediatric emergency department patients. Academic Emergency Medicine. 2010; 17: 50-54. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20003121 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Gerrits MM, Vogelzangs N, Oppen P, Marwijk WJ, Horst H, Penninx B. Impact of pain on the course of depressive and anxiety disorders. Pain. 2012; 153: 429-436. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22154919 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Gibbs LS and Haddox JD. Lawful Prescribing and the Prevention of persion. Journal of Pain & Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 2003; 17(1): 5-14. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14640336 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Gibbs LS, Haddox JD. Lawful prescribing and the prevention of persion. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2003. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14640336 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Gilmore B, Michael M. Treatment of acute migraine headache. Am Fam Physician. 2011; 83(3): 271-80. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21302868Accessed on: 2012-11-28.

Gilmore B, Michael M. Treatment of acute migraine headache. American Family Physician. 2011; 83: 271-280. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2011/0201/p271.html Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Gilson AM, Joranson DE. U.S. Policies Relevant to the Prescribing of Opioid Analgesics for the Treatment of Pain in Patients with Addictive Disease. The Clinical Journal of Pain. 2002; 18: S91-S98. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12479259 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Gislason GH, Jacobsen S, Rasmussen JN, et al. Risk of death or reinfarction associated with the use of selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors and nonselective nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs after acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2006; 113: 2906-2913. Available at: http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/113/25/2906.long Accessed on: 2016-02-03.

Giulia N , McDonough CM , Cabral H, et al . Cost-utility of cognitive behavioral therapy for low back pain from the commercial payer perspective . Spine . 2015; 40(10): 725-733. Available at: http://journals.lww.com/spinejournal/Abstract/2015/05150/Cost_Utility_of_Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy_for.12.aspx Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Goldenberg DL, Schur PH, Romain PL. Initial treatment of fibromyalgia in adults. UpToDate. 2015. Available at: http://www.uptodate.com/contents/initial-treatment-of-fibromyalgia-in-adults Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Goli V, Webster LR, Lamson MJ, et al. Effects of concurrent intravenous morphine sulfate and naltrexone hydrochloride on end-tidal carbon dioxide. Harm Reduction Journal. 2012; 9(13): . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22420453 Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Goodwin JL, Kraemer JJ, Bajwa ZH. The use of opioids in the treatment of osteoarthritis: when, why, and how?. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2009; 11(1): 5-14. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19171106 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Gourlay DL, Heit HA , Caplan YH , et al.. Urine drug testing in clinical practice: the art and science of patient care . John Hopkins Medicine . 2012; 5: . Available at: http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/ama/downloads/udt5_Copy.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-15.

Gourlay DL, Heit HA, Almahrezi A. Universal precautions in pain medicine: A rational approach to the treatment of chronic pain. Pain Medicine. 2005; 6(2): 107-112. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15773874 Accessed on: 2013-09-13.

Gourlay DL, Heit HA. Compliance monitoring in chronic pain management.. In SM Fishman, JC Ballantyne, JP Rathmell (eds). Bonica’s Management of Pain, Fourth Edition Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2010. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Bonicas-Management-Pain-Fishman/dp/0781768276 Accessed on: 2014-08-28.

Gourlay DL, Heit HA. Universal Precautions Revisited: Managing the Inherited Pain Patient. Pain Medicine. 2009; 10(S2): S115-S123. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19691682 Accessed on: 2013-09-16.

Gourlay DL, Howard HA, Yale CH. Urine Drug Testing in Clinical Practice: Dispelling the Myths & Designing Strategies. California Academy of Family Physicians and PharamCom Group, Inc. 2006: Edition 3. Available at: http://www.mc.uky.edu/equip-4-pcps/documents/section8/urine%20drug%20testing%20in%20clinical%20practice.pdf Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Green CR, Ndao-Brumblay SK, West B, Washington T. Differences in prescription opioid analgesic availability: Comparing minority and withe pharmacies across michigan. The Journal of Pain. 2005; 6: 689-699. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16202962 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Green TC , Mann MR , Bowman SE , et al . How does use of a prescription monitoring program change medical practice?. Pain Medicine . 2012; 13: 1314-1323. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22845339 Accessed on: 2015-07-08.

Greenwald MK, Schuh KJ, Hopper JA, Schuster CR, Johanson CE. Effects of buprenorphine sublingual tablet maintenance on opioid drug-seeking behavior by humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2002; 160(4): 344-352. Available at: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00213-001-0975-0 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Gupta DK, Avram MJ. Rational Opioid Dosing in the Elderly: Dose and Dosing Interval When Initiating Opioid Therapy. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 2012; 91(2): 339-343. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22205194 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Hall AJ, Logan JE, Toblin RL, et al. Patterns of abuse among inuntentional pharmaceutical overdose fatalities. JAMA. 2008; 300(22): 2613-2620. Available at: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=183046 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Hall AJ, Logan JE, Toblin RL, et al.. Patterns of Abuse Among Unintentional Pharmaceutical Overdose Fatalities. JAMA. 2008; 300(22): 2613-2620. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19066381 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Hall AJ, Paulozzi LJ. Prescription Opioids and Overdose Deaths—Reply. JAMA. 2009; 301(17): 1767-1768. Available at: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=183831 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Hall DE, Prochazka AV, Fink AS. Informed consent for clinical treatment. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2012; 184: 533-540. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22392947 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Harm Reduction Coalition. Naloxone Kit Materials. Harm Reduction Coalition. . Available at: http://harmreduction.org/issues/overdose-prevention/tools-best-practices/od-kit-materials/ Accessed on: 2015-09-04.

Harned M, Sloan P. Safety concerns with long-term opioid use. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2016; PMID: 27070052: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27070052 Accessed on: 2016-04-26.

Harwood I, Stansfeld S. Doctors and Alcohol Misuse. StudentBMJ . 2006; 14: 265-308. Available at: http://student.bmj.com/student/student-bmj.html Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Heit HA, Gourlay DL. Urine drug testing in pain medicine. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2004; 27(3): 260-267. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15010104 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Heit, H. Aberrant behaviors – refer or triage. Emerging Solutions in Pain. Ask the Expert. http://emergingsolutionsinpain.com/. 2009. Available at: http://www.emergingsolutionsinpain.com/login?return=aW5kZXgucGhwP29wdGlvbj1jb21fbWFtcyZ2aWV3PWFydGljbGUmc2VjaWQ9MTcmYXJ0aWQ9MjM0Jkl0ZW1pZD0yMjA= Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Hill KP. Medical marijuana for treatment of chronic pain and other medical and psychiatric problems. A clinical review. . JAMA. 2015; 313(24): 2474-2483. Available at: http://cannabisclinicians.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/JAMA-Chronic-Pain-2015.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-10.

Hippisley-Cox J, Coupland C. Risk of myocardial infarction in patients taking cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitors or conventional non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: population based nested case-control analysis. BMJ. 2005; 330: 1366. Available at: http://www.bmj.com/content/330/7504/1366?linkType=FULL&journalCode=bmj&resid=330/7504/1366 Accessed on: 2016-02-03.

Holmes CP, Gatchel RJ, Adams LL, Stowell AW, et al. An opioid screening instrument: long-term evaluation of the utility of Pain Medication Questionnaire. Pain Pract. 2006; 6: 74-88. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17309714 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Hooten WM , Timming R, Belgrade M, et al. Assessment and management of chronic pain . Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement . 2013. Available at: https://www.icsi.org/_asset/bw798b/Chronic Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Hospice Palliative Care. Principles of Opioid Management. Hospice Palliative Care Program. 2006. Available at: http://www.fraserhealth.ca/media/16FHSymptomGuidelinesOpioid.pdf Accessed on: 2012-05-09.

Huang AR, Mallet L. Prescribing opioids in older people. Maturitas. 2013; 74: 123-129. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23201325 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Häuser W, Walitt B, Fitzcharles M, Sommer C. Review of pharmacological therapies in fibromyalgia syndrome. Arthritis Research & Therapy. 2014; 16: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24433463 Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Inciardi JA, Surratt HL, Cicero TJ, et al . Prescription opioid abuse and persion in an urban community: the results of an ultra-rapid assessment. Pain Med . 2009; 10(3): 537-548. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2719877/ Accessed on: 2015-07-07.

Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement (ICSI). Pain, Chronic; Assessment and Management of: Guideline Summary. Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement (ICSI). 2011. Available at: https://www.icsi.org/_asset/bw798b/ChronicPain.pdf Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Improving the Quality of Health Care for Mental and Substance-Use Conditions: Quality Chasm Series. Board on Health Care services. 2006. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/read/11470/chapter/5#78 Accessed on: 2010-07-06.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Crossing the Quality Chasm: A New Health System for the 21st Century. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. 2001. Available at: http://iom.nationalacademies.org/Reports/2001/Crossing-the-Quality-Chasm-A-New-Health-System-for-the-21st-Century.aspx Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Health Professions Education: A Bridge to Quality. National Academies Press, Washington, DC. 2003. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/catalog/10681/health-professions-education-a-bridge-to-quality Accessed on: 2014-12-11.

Irwin RS, Rippe JM. Irwin and Rippe’s Intensive Care Medicine. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2012. Available at: http://www.lww.com/Product/9781608311835

Jaine R, Jaine S. Antidepressants in the treatment of chronic pain. Practical Pain Management . 2011. Available at: http://www.practicalpainmanagement.com/treatments/pharmacological/non-opioids/antidepressants-treatment-chronic-pain?page=0,0 Accessed on: 2012-12-03.

Jarzyna D, et. al.. American Society of Pain Management Nursing Guidelines on Monitoring for Opioid-Induced Sedation and Respiratory Depression. Pain Management Nursing . 2011; 12: 118-145. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21893302 Accessed on: 2014-08-25.

Jensen MP, Moore MR, Bockow TB, Ehde DM, Engel JM. Psychosocial factors and adjustment to chronic pain in persons with physical disabilities: a systematic review. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2011; 92: 146-160. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21187217 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Kahan M, Srivastava A, Wilson L, Gourlay D, Midmer D. Misuse of and dependence on opioids: Study of chronic pain patients. Can Fam Physician. 2006; 52(9): 1081-1087. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1783735/ Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Kalunian KC, Tugwell P, Curtis MR. Initial pharmacologic therapy of osteoarthritis. UpToDate. 2015. Available at: http://www.uptodate.com/contents/initial-pharmacologic-therapy-of-osteoarthritis Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Kaner E, Rapley T, May C. Seeing through the glass darkly? A qualitative exploration of GPs’ drinking and their alcohol intervention practices. Family Practice. 2006; 23: 481-487. Available at: http://fampra.oxfordjournals.org/content/23/4/481.full.pdf+html Accessed on: 2010-08-18.

Katz N, Fanciullo GJ. Role of urine toxicology testing in the management of chronic opioid therapy. Clin J Pain. 2002; 19(4): S76-S82. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12479257 Accessed on: 2014-02-27.

Katz NP, Adams EH, Benneyan JC, Birnbaum HG, Budman SH et al. Foundations of opioid risk management. Clinical Journal of Pain. 2007; 23: 103-118. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17237659 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Keefe FJ. Cognitive behavioral therapy for managing pain. The Clinical Psychologist. 1996; 49(3): 4-5. Available at: http://www.apa.org/pisions/p12/rev_est/cbt_pain.html Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Kessler RC. The epidemiology of dual diagnosis. Biological Psychiatry. 2004; 56(10): 730–737. Available at: http://www.biologicalpsychiatryjournal.com/article/S0006-3223(04)00739-5/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Ko TM, Wong CS, Wu JY, et al. Pharmacogenomics for personalized pain medicine. Acta Anaesthesiologica Taiwanica. 2016; 1: 24-30. Available at: http://www.e-aat.com/article/S1875-4597(15)30027-8/fulltext Accessed on: 2017-05-31.

Koes BW , Tulder MV, Lin CWC, et al. An updated overview of clinical guidelines for the management of non-specific low back pain in primary care. Eur Spine J. 2010; 19: 2075-2094. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20602122 Accessed on: 2015-07-08.

Krantz MJ, Kutinsky IB, Robertson AD, et al. Dose-related effects of methadone on QT prolongation in a series of patients with torsade de pointes. Pharmacotherapy. 2003; 23: 802-05. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12820821 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Krantz MJ, Mehler PS. Treating opioid dependence. Growing implications for primary care. Arch Intern Med. 2004; 164(3): 277-88. Available at: http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=216641 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Krebs EE, Lorenz KA, Bair MJ. Development and initial validation of the PEG, a three-item scale assessing pain intensity and interference. J Gen Intern Med. 2009; 24(6): 733-738. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2686775/ Accessed on: 2016-04-26.

Lande RG, Marin BA, Chang AS, Mason S, Lande GR. A survey of alcohol consumption among first-year military medical students. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2007; 33(4): 605-10. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17668346 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Laudet AB. Substance Abuse Treatment Providers’ Referral to Self-Help: Review and Future Empirical Directions. Int J Self Help Self Care. 2000; 1(3): 213-225. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2112772/ Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Lipman AG. Understanding Opioid Tolerance A Seriously Overestimated Phenomenon. Journal of Pain and Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 2013; 27: 318-319. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24303831 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Loxterkamp D. Helping ‘them’: our role in recovery from opioid dependence. Ann Fam Med. 2006; 4(2): 168-71. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1467002/ Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Madsen MV, Gøtzsche PC, Hróbjartsson A. Acupuncture treatment for pain: systematic review of randomized clinical trials with acupuncture, placebo acupuncture, and no acupuncture groups. BMJ. 2009; 338: 13-115. Available at: http://www.bmj.com/content/338/bmj.a3115 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Manchikanti L, et. al.. American Society of Interventional Physicians (ASIPP) Guidelines for Responsible Opioid Prescribing in Chronic Non-Cancer Pain: Part 2 – Guidance . Pain Physician. 2012; 15: 67-116. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22786449 Accessed on: 2013-07-22.

Manchikanti L, Singh V, Kloth D. Interventional pain management practice policies. ASIPP.org. 2002. Available at: http://www.asipp.org/documents/ASIPP_Guidelines%20II.PDF Accessed on: 2010-10-01.

Marshall, PS. Physical Functional Ability Questionnaire (FAQ5). In: Assessment and Management of Chronic Pain, 5th edition. Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement. 2011; 14: Appendix C:99. Available at: http://www.generationsprimarycare.com/assets/pain-contract.pdf Accessed on: 2017-04-10.

Martin DP, Bhalla T, Beltran R, et al. The safety of prescribing opioids in pediatrics. Expert opinion in drug safety. 2014; 13(1): 93-101. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24073760 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Martin JF. Privacy and confidentiality. Handbook of Global Bioethics. 2013; 1: 119-137. Available at: http://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-2512-6_72#page-1 Accessed on: 2015-06-23.

Mayo Clinic Staff. Migraine. Mayo Clinic Health Information. 2012. Available at: http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/migraine-headache/basics/definition/con-20026358 Accessed on: 2014-08-26.

McCabe SE, Boyd CJ, Cranford JA, Teter CJ. Motives for nonmedical use of prescription opioids among high school seniors in the United States: Self-treatment and beyond. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. 2009; 163(8): 739-744.

McCulloch, DK. Chronic Opioid Therapy Safety Guideline for Patients With Chronic Non-Cancer Pain. Group Health. 2010, rev. 2012. Available at: http://www.ghc.org/all-sites/guidelines/chronicOpioid.pdf Accessed on: 2013-09-06.

McLellan AT, Turner BJ. Chronic noncancer pain management and opioid overdose: time to change prescribing practices. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2010; 152(2): 123-124. Available at: http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=745524 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

McNicol ED, Midbari A, Eisenberg E. Opioids for neuropathic pain. Cochrane Database System of Reviews. 2013; 8(8): CD006146. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23986501 Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

McPherson ML. Demystifying Opioid Conversion Calculations: A Guide for Effective Dosing. Available in Google Books. 2009. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Demystifying-Opioid-Conversion-Calculations-Effective/dp/1585281980 Accessed on: 2010-05-11.

McWilliams LA, Goodwin RD, Cox BJ. Depression and anxiety associated with three pain conditions: results from a nationally representative sample. Pain. 2004; 111(1-2): 77-83. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15327811 Accessed on: 2012-12-03.

MDBiosciences.com. Nociception, Neuropathic and Inflammatory Pain. Target Inflammatoin: An Applications Newsletter for Inflammatory Research. 2006. Available at: http://cdn2.hubspot.net/hub/42723/file-5409214-pdf/docs/newsletter-fall06.pdf Accessed on: 2014-12-11.

Mdege ND, Lang J . Screening instruments for detecting illicit drug use/abuse that could be useful in general hospital wards: a systematic review. Addictive Behaviors . 2011; 36(12): 1111-1119. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21821364 Accessed on: 2015-07-14.

Meghani et al. Predictors of resolution of aberrant drug behavior in chronic pain patients treated in a structured opioid risk management program. Pain Med. 2009. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19523029?ordinalpos=4&itool=Email.EmailReport.Pubmed_ReportSelector.Pubmed_RVDocSum Accessed on: 2009-03-31.

Meissner K, Avram MJ, Yermolenka V, et al. Cyclosporine-inhibitable Blood-Brain Barrier Drug Transport Influences Clinical Morphine Pharmacodynamics. Anesthesiology. 2013; 119(4): 941-953. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23851346 Accessed on: 2015-06-29.

Melzack R. The McGill Pain Questionnaire: major properties and scoring methods. Pain. 1975; 1: 277-299. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1235985 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Menefee Pujol LA, Katz N, Zacharoff KL. The Role of Referral for Consultation in Pain Management. PainEDU Manual Updates. 2009. Available at: https://www.painedu.org/login-check.asp?targetpage= Accessed on: 2009-10-27.

Merck. Types of Pain. The Merck Manual Home Health Handbook for Patients & Caregivers. 2007. Available at: http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/brain,-spinal-cord,-and-nerve-disorders/pain/overview-of-pain Accessed on: 2014-08-25.

Merlo LJ, Gold MS. Prescription opioid abuse and dependence among physicians: hypotheses and treatment. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2008; 16: 181-194. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18569039 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Merrick M. Prescription opioids and overdose deaths. JAMA. 2009; 301(17): 1767. Available at: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=183832 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Merrill JO, Von Korff M, Banta-Green CJ, et al. Prescribed opioid difficulties, depression and opioid dose among chronic opioid therapy patients. General Hospital Psychiatry. 2012; 34: 581-587. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22959422 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Middleton P, Pollard H. Are chronic low back pain outcomes improved with co-management of concurrent depression?. Chiro Osteopat. 2005; 13(1): . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182702/ Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Miller WR, Rollnick S . Motivational interviewing. Helping people change.. Applications of Motivational Interviewing . 2012; 3: . Available at: http://www.guilford.com/books/Motivational-Interviewing/Miller-Rollnick/9781609182274 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Moore TM , Jones T , Browder JH, et al. A comparison of common screening methods for predicting aberrant drug-related behavior among patients receiving opioids for chronic pain management. Pain Medicine . 2009; 10(8): 1426-1433. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-4637.2009.00743.x/abstract Accessed on: 2015-07-14.

Morone NE, Greco CM, Weiner DK. Mindfulness meditation for the treatment of chronic low back pain in older adults: A randomized controlled pilot study. Pain. 2008; 134(3): 310-319. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2254507/ Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Morrison RS, Wallenstein S, et al. “We Don’t Carry That”-Failure of pharmacies in predominately nonwhite neighborhoods to stock opioid analgesics. New Engl J Med. 2000; 342: 1023-1026. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10749965 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

NAABT.org. Physical Dependence and Addiction An Important Distinction. The National Alliance of Advocates for Buprenorphine Treatment. 2014. Available at: http://www.naabt.org/addiction_physical-dependence.cfm Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Nafziger AN, Bertino JS. Utility and application of urine drug testing in chronic pain management with opioids. Clinical Journal of Pain. 2009; 25(1): 73-79. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19158549 Accessed on: 2013-09-16.

Nalamachu SR. Opioid Rotation in Clinical Practice. Advances in Therapy. 2012; 29(10): 849-863. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23054690Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

NaloxoneInfo.org. Naloxone Information. NaloxoneInfo.org. . Available at: http://naloxoneinfo.org/sites/default/files/Frequently%20Asked%20Questions-Naloxone_EN.pdf Accessed on: 2015-09-04.

National Cancer Institute. PDQ® Cannabis and Cannabinoids. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Date last modified: 2016. Available at: http://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/cam/patient/cannabis-pdq#link/_11 Accessed on: 2016-03-09.

National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. NIH Analysis Shows Americans are in Pain. National Institute of Health. 2015. Available at: https://nccih.nih.gov/news/press/08112015?nav=pin Accessed on: 2015-10-02.

National Drug Intelligence Center. Heroin Distribution in Three Cities: New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles. Johnstown, Pa: U.S. Department of Justice. Product 2001-R0370-001. 2000a.

National Drug Intelligence Center. Information Bulletin January 2001: OxyContin persion and Abuse. Johnstown, Pa: National Drug Intelligence Center. Product 2001-L0424-001. 2001. Available at: http://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs/651/651t.htm Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

National Drug Intelligence Center. National Drug Threat Assessment 2001: The Domestic Perspective. Johnstown, Pa: U.S. Department of Justice. Product 2001-SQ0317-001. 2000b. Available at: http://books.google.com/books/about/National_drug_threat_assessment_2001.html?id=JexlmaUMKRwC Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

National Guideline Clearinghouse (NGC)/National Headache Foundation (NHF). Treatment of primary headache: acute migraine treatment. Standards of care for headache diagnosis and treatment. Based on: Standards of care for headache diagnosis and treatment. Chicago (IL): National Headache Foundation. 2004: 27-39. Available at: http://www.headaches.org/2007/11/19/standards-of-care-for-headache-diagnosis-and-treatment/ Accessed on: 2014-08-26.

National Pain Foundation. Migraine Headache. National Pain Foundation, Inc. 2009. Available at: http://www.nationalpainfoundation.org/cat/97/migraine-headacheAccessed on: 2009-06-25.

NCCAM. Get the Facts: Acupuncture for Pain. NCCAM Online. 2009. Available at: http://www.medicalacupuncture.org/ForPatients/ArticlesByPhysiciansAboutAcupuncture/NCCAMAcupunctureInformation.aspx Accessed on: 2014-08-21.

NDIC. Methadone persion, Abuse, and Misuse: Deaths Increasing at Alarming Rate. National Drug Intelligence Center. 2010. Available at: http://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs25/25930/25930p.pdf

Nicholas AS, Molloy AR, Brooker C. Using opioids with persisting noncancer pain: A biopsychosocial perspective. Clin J Pain. 2006; 22: 137–146. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16428947 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Nichols R. Pain Management in Patients with Addictive Disease. The American Journal of Nursing. 2003; 103(3): 87-90. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12626948 Accessed on: 2014-08-25.

Nicholson B. Benefits of extended-release opioid analgesic formulations in the treatment of chronic pain.. Pain Practice. 2009; 9: 71-81. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19019047 Accessed on: 2013-07-18.

Noble M, Treadwell JR, Tregear SJ, Coates VH, Wiffen PJ, Akafomo C, Schoelles KM. Long-term opioid management for chronic non-cancer pain. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2010; 1: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20091598

O’Sullivan SB, Schmitz TJ, Fulk GD. Physical Rehabilitation. DavisPlus. 2014; 6: . Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Physical-Rehabilitation-OSullivan/dp/0803625790 Accessed on: 2015-07-02.

Obermann M. Treatment options in trigeminal neuralgia. Therapeutic Advances in Neurological Disorders. 2010; 3: 107-115. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3002644/ Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP). Proper Disposal of Prescription Drugs. White House Drug Policy. 2009. Available at: http://www.whitehouse.gov/ondcp Accessed on: 2009-05-18.

Office of National Drug Control Policy. Pulse Check: trends in drug abuse, January-June 2002 reporting period. Publication NCJ-197242. 2002. Available at: https://www.ncjrs.gov/ondcppubs/publications/drugfact/pulsechk/pulse_nov02.pdf Accessed on: 2006-01-31.

Oslund S, Robinson RC, Clark TM, et al. Long-term effectiveness of a comprehensive pain management program: strengthening the case for interdisciplinary care. Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent) . 2009; 22(3): 211-214. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2709080/ Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Overdyk FJ. Initiatives in Safe Patient Care: Postoperative Respiratory Depression and Opioids. Saxe Healthcare Communications. 2009; 1-8: . Available at: http://www.initiatives-patientsafety.org/assets/initiatives1.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-02.

Pasero C, McCoffery M. Reversing Respiratory Depression with Naloxone. The American Journal of Nursing. 2003; 100: 26. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10683639 Accessed on: 2013-09-13.

Passik S. Moment of truth and techniques needed to manage the patient with chronic pain. http://www.emergingsolutionsinpain.com. 2008. Available at: http://www.medscape.org/viewarticle/587118 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Passik S. Psychiatric and pain characteristics of prescription drug abusers entering drug rehabilitation. Journal of Pain and Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 2006; 20(2): 5-13.

Passik SD, Kirsh KL, Casper D. Addiction-related assessment tools and pain management: instruments for screening, treatment planning and monitoring compliance. Pain Med. 2008; 9: S145-S166.

Passik SD, Kirsh KL, Webster L. Pseudoaddiction revisited: a commentary on clinical and historical considerations. Pain Management. 2011; 1(3): 239-248. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24646390 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Passik SD, Kirsh KL. Managing Pain in Patients With Aberrant Drug-Taking Behaviors. Journal of Supportive Oncology. 2005; 3(1): 83–86. Available at: http://www.oncologypractice.com/jso/journal/articles/0301083.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Passik SD, Kirsh KL. Opioid therapy in patients with a history of substance abuse. CNS Drugs. 2004; 18(1): 13-25. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8851374 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Passik SD, Schein JR, Dodd SL, et al. A new tool to assess and document pain outcomes in chronic pain patients receiving opioid therapy. Clin Ther. 2004; 26(4): 552-61. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0149291804900574 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Passik SD, Weinreb HJ. Managing chronic nonmalignant pain: Overcoming obstacles to the use of opioids. Adv Ther. 2000; 17: 70-83.

Passik SD. Issues in long-term opioid therapy: unmet needs, risks, and solutions. Mayo Clin Proc. 2009; 84(7): 593-601. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2704131/ Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Passik, SD. Random Access of PMPs. Emerging Solutions in Pain. 2009. Available at: http://emergingsolutionsinpain.com/ Accessed on: 2009-12-05.

Pawasauskas J, Stevens B, Youssef R, Kelley M. Predictors of naloxone use for respiratory depression and oversedation in hospitalized adults. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy. 2014; 71(9): 746-750. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24733138 Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

PCSS. XR-Naltrexone: A step-by-step guide. Provider’s Clinical Support System for Medicated Assisted Treatment. 2017. Available at: https://custom.cvent.com/10D3BAE39269457884C1D96DE1DF8D8D/files/b8f05ba83cfe4b859a8f5f72602878f0.pdf Accessed on: 2017-02-15.

Peppin JF, Passik SD, Couto JE, et al. Recommendations for urine drug monitoring as a component of opioid therapy in the treatment of chronic pain. Pain Medicine. 2012; June early e-publications: 1-11. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-4637.2012.01414.x/abstract Accessed on: 2012-06-18.

Pergolizzi J, Böger RH, Budd K, et al. Opioids and the management of chronic severe pain in the elderly: consensus statement of an International Expert Panel with focus on the six clinically most often used World Health Organization Step III opioids (buprenorphine, fentanyl, hydromorphone, methadone, morphine, oxycodone). Pain Pract. 2008; 8(4): 287-313. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18503626 Accessed on: 2013-09-16.

Pergolizzi J, et al. Towards a multidisciplinary team approach in chronic pain management . Change Pain . 2013. Available at: http://www.pae-eu.eu/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Multidisciplinary-approach-in-chronic-pain-management.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Physicians for Responsible Opioid Prescribing (PROP). Cautious Evidence Based Opioid Prescribing. Physicians for Responsible Opioid Prescribing. 2011. Available at: http://www.supportprop.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/PROP_OpioidPrescribing.pdf Accessed on: 2012-05-09.

Portenoy RK, Ahmed E. Principles of Opioid Use in Cancer Pain. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2014; 32(16): 1662-1670. Available at: http://jco.ascopubs.org/content/early/2014/05/05/JCO.2013.52.5188.abstract Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Pountos I, Georgouli T, Bird H, Giannoudis PV. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: Prostaglandins, indications, and side effects. International Journal of Interferon, Cytokine and Mediator Research. 2011; 3: 19-27. Available at: https://www.dovepress.com/nonsteroidal-anti-inflammatory-drugs-prostaglandins-indications-and-si-peer-reviewed-article-IJICMR Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Pritham UA, McKay L. Safe Management of Chronic Pain in Pregnancy in an Era of Opioid Misuse and Abuse. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing. 2014; 43(5): 554-567. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25123962 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Qaseem A, Wilt TJ, McLean RM, et al.. Noninvasive treatments for acute, subacute, and chronic low back pain: A clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. American College of Physicians. 2017. Available at: http://annals.org/aim/article/2603228/noninvasive-treatments-acute-subacute-chronic-low-back-pain-clinical-practice Accessed on: 2017-02-15.

Reinarman C, Nunberg H, Lanthier F, Heddleston T. Who are medical marijuana patients? Population characteristics from nine California assessment clinics. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 2011; 43 (2): 128-135. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Craig_Reinarman/publication/51587751_Who_Are_Medical_Marijuana_Patients_Population_Characteristics_from_Nine_California_Assessment_Clinics/links/5422fc330cf290c9e3ae246b.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-10.

Reisfield GM, Salazar E, Bertholf RL. Review: rational use and interpretation of urine drug testing in chronic opioid therapy. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 2007; 37(4): 301-314. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000286 Accessed on: 2013-09-16.

Richards JS, Kogos SC Jr, Ness TJ, Oleson CV. Effects of smoking on neuropathic pain in two people with spinal cord injury. Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine. 2005; 28(4): 330-332.

Risser A, Donovan D, Heintzman J, Page T. NSAID prescribing precautions. Am Fam Physician. 2009; 80(12): 1371-8. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2009/1215/p1371.html Accessed on: 2014-08-25.

Risser A, Donovan D, Heintzman J, Page T. NSAID prescribing precautions. American Family Physician. 2009; 80: 1371-1378. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2009/1215/p1371.html Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Roehrs TA, Harris E, Randall S, Roth T. Pain Sensitivity and Recovery From Mild Chronic Sleep Loss. Sleeep. 2012. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3490359/ Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Rosen CS, Ouimette PC, Sheikh JI, Gregg JA, Moos RH. Physical and sexual abuse history and addiction treatment outcomes. Journal Studies on Alcohol. 2002; 63: 683-687. Available at: http://www.jsad.com/doi/abs/10.15288/jsa.2002.63.683 Accessed on: 2015-04-02.

Rudd RA. Increases in Drug and Opioid-Involved Overdose Deaths — United States, 2010–2015. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2016; 65: . Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/wr/mm655051e1.htm Accessed on: 2016-12-20.

SAMHSA. Managing chronic pain in adults with or in recovery from substance use disorders . Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series, No. 54 . 2012. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92046/#_ch4_s15_ Accessed on: 2015-07-08.

SAMHSA. Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings. NSDUH Series H-46, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 13-4795. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2013. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUHresultsPDFWHTML2013/Web/NSDUHresults2013.pdf Accessed on: 2014-07-30.

SAMHSA. SAMHSA opioid overdose prevention toolkit. . 2014. Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//SMA14-4742/Overdose_Toolkit.pdf Accessed on: 2014-09-22.

SAMHSA. Use of buprenorphine in the pharmacologic management of opioid dependence . Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2001. Available at: http://www.buprenorphine.samhsa.gov/Buprenorphine_Curriculum.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Sansone RA, Sansone LA. Chronic pain syndromes and borderline personality. Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience. 2012; 9: 10-14. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3280073/ Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Saper JR, Lake AE. Continuous opioid therapy (COT) is rarely advisable for refractory chronic daily headache: Limited efficacy, risks, and proposed guidelines. Headache. 2008; 48(6): 838-49.

Savage SD, Kirsh KL, Passik, SD. Challenges in using opioids to treat pain in persons with substance use disorders. Addiction Science & Clinical Practice. 2008. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2797112/ Accessed on: 2009-11-16.

Savage SR. Management of Opioid Medications in Patients with Chronic Pain and Risk of Substance Abuse. Current Psychiatry Reports. 2009; 11: 377-384. Available at: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11920-009-0057-2 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Savage SR. Principles of Pain Treatment in Addictive Disorders. Presentation at the American Psychiatric Association Annual Meeting. 2004. Available at: http://archives.drugabuse.gov/meetings/apa/ppt/savage.pdf Accessed on: 2009-10-22.

Schafer, M. Guide to Pain Management in Low-Resource Settings, Chapter 7 Opioids in Pain Medicine. International Association for the Study of Pain. 2010. Available at: http://www.iasp-pain.org/files/Content/ContentFolders/Publications2/FreeBooks/Guide_to_Pain_Management_in_Low-Resource_Settings.pdfAccessed on: 2013-07-22.

Schechter Neil L. Pediatric Pain Management and Opioids: the baby and the bathwater. JAMA Pediatrics. 2014; 168(11): 987-988. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25200481 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Schnoll, Sidney H., Finch, James. Medical Education for Pain and Addiction: Making Progress Toward Answering a Need. The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics. 1994. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1748-720X.1994.tb01303.x/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Shah A, Hayes CJ, Martin BC, et al. Characteristics of initial prescription episodes and likelihood of long-term opioid use — United States, 2006–2015. MMWR. 2017; 66(10): 265-269. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/66/wr/mm6610a1.htm?s_cid=mm6610a1_w Accessed on: 2017-03-23.

Shi Y, Weingarten TN, Hooten WM, Maintilla CB, Warner DO. Smoking and pain: pathophysiology and clinical implications. Anesthesiology. 2010; 113(4): 977-992. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20864835 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Silverman SM.. Opioid induced hyperalgesia: Clinical implications for the pain practitioner. Pain Physician. 2009; 12(3): 679-694. Available at: http://www.painphysicianjournal.com/ Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Simeone R. Doctor shopping behavior and the persion of opioid analgesics: 2008-2012. IMS Government Solutions . 2014. Available at: http://www.pdmpassist.org/pdf/Opioid_persion_08142014.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Sinusas K. Osteoarthritis: Diagnosis and treatment. American Family Physician. 2012; 85: 49-56. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2012/0101/p49.html Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Solanki DR, Koyyalagunta D, Shah RV, Silverman S, Manchikanti L. Monitoring opioid adherence in chronic pain patients: Assessment of risk of substance misuse. Pain Physician. 2011; 14: E119-E131. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21412377 Accessed on: 2015-07-07.

Solomon DH, Furst DE, Romain PL. NSAIDs: Therapeutic use and variability of response in adults. UpToDate. 2015. Available at: http://www.uptodate.com/contents/nsaids-therapeutic-use-and-variability-of-response-in-adults Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Solomon DH, Furst DE, Romain PL. Patient information: Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) . UpToDate. 2014. Available at: http://www.uptodate.com/contents/nonsteroidal-antiinflammatory-drugs-nsaids-beyond-the-basics Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Stagnitti MN. Trends in Prescribed Outpatient Opioid Use and Expenses in the U.S. Civilian Noninstitutionalized Population, 2002-2012. Statistical Brief. AHRQ. 2015. Available at: http://meps.ahrq.gov/mepsweb/data_files/publications/st478/stat478.shtml Accessed on: 2015-10-12.

Stein DJ, Ipser JC, Seedat S. Pharmacotherapy for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews . 2006; 1: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16437445 Accessed on: 2015-09-01.

Stephens RC. The Street Addict Role: A Theory of Heroin Addiction. Albany: State University of New York Press. 1991. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/dp/0791406202 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. OxyContin®: Prescription Drug Abuse. CSAT Advisory. 2001(b): 1(1). Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//SMA08-4138/SMA08-4138.pdf Accessed on: 2014-08-26.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Results from the 2008 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings. Office of Applied Studies, NSDUH Series H-36, HHS Publication No. SMA 09-4434. Rockville, MD. 2009.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary Care Clinicians. Rockville, Md: Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Treatment Improvement Protocol Series, No. 24. Publication (SMA) 02-3687. 1997. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64827/ Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies. The TEDS Report: Substance Abuse Treatment Admissions Involving Abuse of Pain Relievers: 1998 and 2008. Rockville, MD. 2010. Available at: http://oas.samhsa.gov/2k10/230/230PainRelvr2k10Web.pdf Accessed on: 2010-07-23.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. Rockville, Md: Center For Substance Abuse Treatment. Treatment Improvement Protocol Series, No. 40, USDHHS Publication (SMA) 04-3939. 2004. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64766/

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Advisory. Winter 2016; 15 (1): . Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//SMA16-4938/SMA16-4938.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-05.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Aministration. Opioid Overdose Toolkit. SAMHSA. . Available at: http://evzio.com/hcp/about-naloxone/samhsa-opioid-overdose-toolkit.php Accessed on: 2015-09-04.

Sullivan MD, Von Korff M, Banta-Green C, Merrill JO, Saunders K. Problems and concerns of patients receiving chronic opioid therapy for chronic non-cancer pain. Pain. 2010; 149: 345-353. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20334974 Accessed on: 2015-07-02.

Taylor R, Raffa RB , Pergolizzi JV. Opioid formulations with sequestered naltrexone: a perspective review . Ther Adv Drug Saf . 2014; 5(3): 129-137. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4110852/ Accessed on: 2015-07-07.

Tennant F. Using objective signs of severe pain to guide opioid prescribing. Pain Treatment Topics. 2008. Available at: http://www.thblack.com/links/RSD/Tennant-PainSigns-6p.pdf Accessed on: 2010-07-07.

The American Academy of Pain Medicine. The American Society of Addiction Medicine. Consensus document. The American Pain Society. 2001. Available at: http://opi.areastematicas.com/generalidades/definicionesopiaceos.AAPM.pdf

Timko C, DeBenedetti A. A randomized controlled trial of intensive referral to 12-step self-help groups: one-year outcomes. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007; 90(2-3): 270-9. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=A+randomized+controlled+trial+of+intensive+referral+to+12-step+self-help+groups%3A+one-year+outcomes Accessed on: 2013-09-13.

Trelle S, Reichenbach S, Wandel S, et al. Cardiovascular safety of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: network meta-analysis. BMJ. 2011; 342: c7086. Available at: http://www.bmj.com/content/342/bmj.c7086 Accessed on: 2016-02-03.

Trescot A, Glaser S, Hansen H, et al. Effectiveness of opioids in the treatment of chronic non-cancer pain. Pain Physician. 2008a; 11: S181-S200. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18443639 Accessed on: 2013-09-13.

Trescot A, Helm S, Hansen H, et al. Opioids in the management of chronic non-cancer pain: an update of American Society of the Interventional Pain Physicians’ (ASIPP) guidelines. Pain Physician. 2008b; 11: S5-S62.

Turk D, Gatchel R. Biopsychosocial perspective on chronic pain. Psychological approaches to pain management: A practitioner ‘s handbook. 2002. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17592957 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Turner JA, Saunders K, Shortreed SM, et al. Chronic Opioid Therapy Urine Drug Testing in Primary Care: Prevalence and Predictors of Aberrant Results. J Gen Intern Med. 2014; 29(12): 1663-1671. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25217208 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

U.S. Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration. Dispensing Controlled Substances for the Treatment of Pain. Federal Register Notices. 2006; 71(172): 52715-52723. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/fed_regs/notices/2006/fr09062.htm Accessed on: 2009-12-04.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Ultram (tramadol hydrochloride), Ultracet (tramadol hydrochloride/acetaminophen): Label Change. MedWatch: The FDA Safety Information and Adverse Event Reporting Program: Safety Information. 2010; Safety Alerts for Human Medical Products: . Available at: http://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/SafetyAlertsforHumanMedicalProducts/ucm213264.htm Accessed on: 2014-08-01.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Final Recommendation Statement – Depression in Adults: Screening. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Website. 2016. Available at: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/RecommendationStatementFinal/depression-in-adults-screening1 Accessed on: 2016-02-02.

United States Department of Health and Human Services. Social determinants of health. Healthy People 2020. 2014. Available at: http://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/topics-objectives/topic/social-determinants-health Accessed on: 2015-07-02.

United States Department of Labor. Counselors. Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010-11 Edition. 2009. Available at: http://www.bls.gov/ooh/Community-and-Social-Service/School-and-career-counselors.htm Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

United States Department of Labor. Occupational Outlook Handbook: Physical Therapists. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2009. Available at: http://www.bls.gov/ooh/Healthcare/Physical-therapists.htm Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

US Department of Health and Human Services, SAMHSA. National Estimates of Drug-Related Emergency Department Visits. Drug Abuse Warning Network, 2011. 2013. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/DAWN2k11ED/DAWN2k11ED/DAWN2k11ED.pdf Accessed on: 2014-10-31.

USDHHS. Facing Addiction in America. The Surgeon General’s Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health. Surgeon General Reports. 2016. Available at: https://addiction.surgeongeneral.gov/ Accessed on: 2016-11-17.

VA/DoD. Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain. VA/DoD. 2010. Available at: http://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/Pain/cot/COT_312_Full-er.pdf Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

VA/DoD. Tapering and Discontinuing Opioids. 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain. 2010. Available at: http://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/Pain/cot/OpioidTaperingFactSheet23May2013v1.pdf Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

VA/DoD. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain. VA/DoC. 2003. Available at: http://www.ihs.gov/nc4/index.cfmAccessed on: 2009-12-01.

VAHPC. Risk evaluation & mitigation tool-kit: strategies to promote the safe use of opioids. Virginia Association for Hospices and Palliative Care (VAHPC) . 2012. Available at: http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/www.virginiahospices.org/resource/resmgr/imported/Final%20Tool%20Kit%20Merged%20Document%20for%20electronic%20distribution.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-07.

van Ojik AL, Jansen PAF, Brouwers J, et al. Treatment of Chronic Pain in Older People. Drugs & Aging. 2012; 29(8): 615-625. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22765848 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

van Tulder M, Ostelo R, Vlaeyen J, Linton S, Morley S, Assendelft W. Behavioral treatment for chronic low back pain: A systematic review within the framework of the Cochrane Back Review Group. Spine. 2000; 25: 2688-2699. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11034658 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Vicol M. Confidentiality Laws. Mental Health Practitioner’s Guide to HIV/AIDS. 2013. Available at: http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4614-5283-6_23#page-1 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Vissers KCP, Besse K, Hans G, Devulder J, Morlion B. Opioid Rotation in the Management of Chronic Pain: Where Is the Evidence?. Pain Practice. 2010; 10(2): 85-93. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1533-2500.2009.00335.x/pdf

Vitiello MV, McCurry SM, Shortreed SM, et al. Cognitive-behavioral treatment for comorbid insomnia and osteoarthritis pain in primary care: the lifestyles randomized controlled trial. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013; 61(6): 947-56. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23711168 Accessed on: 2014-04-29.

Vowles KE, McCracken LM. Acceptance and values-based action in chronic pain: A study of treatment effectiveness and process. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2008; 76: 397-407. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18540733 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Vowles KE, McEntee ML, Julnes PS, et al. Rates of opioid misuse, abuse, and addiction in chronic pain: a systematic review and data synthesis. Pain. 2015; 156(4): 569-576. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25785523 Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Waknine Y. FDA Approves 7-Day Buprenorphine Pain Patch. Medscape Today. 2010. Available at: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/724626 Accessed on: 2015-07-02.

Walker MJ, Webster LR. Risk factors for drug persion in a pain clinic patient population . Journal of Opioid Management . 2012; 8(6): 351-62. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23264313 Accessed on: 2015-07-07.

Walsh S. FDA approves new hand-held auto-injector to reverse opioid overdose: First naloxone treatment specifically designed to be given by a family members or caregivers. FDA.gov. 2014. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm391465.htm Accessed on: 2015-09-04.

Ware MA, Wang T, Shapiro S, et al.. Cannabis for the management of pain: Assessment of safety study . J Pain. . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26385201 Accessed on: 2016-03-09.

Warner EA. Opioids for the Treatment of Chronic Noncancer Pain. The American Journal of Medicine. 2012; 125(12): 1155-1161. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18443640 Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Warner M, Chen LH, Makuc DM. Increase in fatal poisonings involving opioid analgesics in the United States, 1999-2006. NCHS Data Brief, no. 22. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2009. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db22.pdf Accessed on: 2010-03-05.

Washington State Department of Health. Washington State Department of Health: Pain Management. Washington State Department of Health. 2010. Available at: http://www.doh.wa.gov/ForPublicHealthandHealthcareProviders/HealthcareProfessionsandFacilities/PainManagement Accessed on: 2013-07-30.

Weaver MF and Schnoll SH. Opioid Treatment of Chronic Pain in Patients with Addiction. Journal of Pain & Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 2002; 16(3): 2-26. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14640352 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

WebMD. Acupuncture for Arthritis. www.webmd.com. 2007. Available at: http://www.webmd.com/rheumatoid-arthritis/guide/arthritis-acupuncture?page=2Accessed on: 2010-07-20.

WebMD. Migraines & Headaches Health Center. WebMD. 2012. Available at: http://www.webmd.com/migraines-headaches/guide/default.htm Accessed on: 2012-11-28.

WebMD. Physical Therapy for Chronic Pain. WebMD’s online Pain Management Health Center. 2016. Available at: http://www.webmd.com/pain-management/physical-therapy Accessed on: 2016-12-28.

Webster L. Communication and risk strategies for inpidualized treatment plans. http://www.emergingsolutionsinpain.com. 2009. Available at: http://emergingsolutionsinpain.com/index.php?option=com_continued&view=material&Itemid=283&course=35&token=cdb4cce343d371c69ab43d4ba0394b94Accessed on: 2010-05-19.

Webster LR, Dave B. Avoiding opioid abuse while managing pain. A guide for practitioners. North Branch, MN: Sunrise River Press. 2007. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/dp/0962481483 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Webster LR, Fine PG. Overdose deaths demand a new paradigm for opioid rotation. Pain Med. 2012; 13(4): 571-4. Available at: http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/ama/downloads/130328_Overdose_deaths_demand_a_new_paradigm_for_opioid_rotation_Copy.pdf

Webster LR, Webster RM. Predicting aberrant behaviors in opioid-treated patients: Preliminary validation of the Opioid Risk Tool. Pain Medicine. 2005; 6(6): 432-442. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16336480 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Webster LR. Methadone side effects: Constipation, respiratory depression, sedation, sleep-disordered breathing, and the endocrine system. Handbook of Methadone Prescribing and Buprenorphine Therapy. 2013. Available at: http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-6974-2_4 Accessed on: 2015-07-02.

Webster LR. Methadone-related deaths. Pain Med. 2011; 1(4): 211-7. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21668754 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Webster, L. Misuse. Emerging Solutions in Pain. Knowledge Library. 2010. Available at: http://emergingsolutionsinpain.com/

Weingarten, TN, Shi, Y, Mantilla, CB, Hooten, WM, Warner, DO. Smoking and chronic pain: A real-but-puzzling relationship. Minnesota Medicine. 2011; March: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21485923 Accessed on: 2011-03-03.

Weissman DE, Haddox JD. Opioid pseudoaddiction—An iatrogenic syndrome. J Pain. 1989; 36(3): 363-366. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2710565 Accessed on: 2013-09-16.

Wiedemer NL, Harden PS, Arndt IO, Gallagher RM. The Opioid Renewal Clinic: A primary care, managed approach to opioid therapy in chronic pain patients at risk for substance abuse. Pain Medicine. 2007; 8(7): 573-584. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-4637.2006.00254.x/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Wolff JL, Roter DL. Family presence in routine medical visits: A meta-analytical review. Social Science & Medicine. 2011; 72: 823-831. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3070824/ Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Workman E & Hendrix J. Anxiety and depression in a psychiatrically informed pain medicine practice. CMP Media LLC. 2007. Available at: http://pro.psychcentral.com/anxiety-and-depression-in-a-psychiatrically-informed-pain-medicine-practice/00562.html Accessed on: 2014-08-21.

World Health Organization (WHO). WHO’s pain relief ladder. World Health Organization: Programmes and projects: Cancer. 2010. Available at: http://www.who.int/cancer/palliative/painladder/en/ Accessed on: 2010-05-25.

Wu SM, Compton P, Bolus R, et al. The Addiction Behaviors Checklist: validation of a new clinician-based measure of inappropriate opioid use in chronic pain. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2006; 32: 342-351. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885392406004416 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Zacharoff, KL, Pujol LM, Corsini E. Managing Chronic Pain With Opioids in Primary Care. The PainEDU.org Manual. 2010; 2nd ed: . Available at: http://www.bookwire.com/book/USA/Managing-Chronic-Pain-with-Opioids-in-Primary-Care-9780982529805-Zacharoff-Kevin-L-28531238 Accessed on: 2012-05-21.

Ziegler PP. Addiction and the Treatment of Pain. Substance Use and Misuse. 2005; 40(1): 1945-1954. Available at: http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10826080500294841 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

AAPI. Use of Opioids for the Treatment of Chronic Pain, A statement from the American Academy of Pain Medicine. The American Academy of Chronic Pain. 2013. Available at: http://www.painmed.org/files/use-of-opioids-for-the-treatment-of-chronic-pain.pdf Accessed on: 2013-07-18.

AAPS. Project: Communicate and Cooperate; AAPS 3-Point Plan to Stop the “Drug War on Physicians” & Reduce Prescription Drug Abuse. Association of American Physicians and Surgeons, Inc.. 2009. Available at: http://www.aapsonline.org/painman/cooperate.htm Accessed on: 2009-12-04.

Ablin J, Fitzcharles M, Buskila D, Shir Y, Sommer C, Häuser W. Treatment of fibromyalgia syndrome: Recommendations of recent evidence-based interdisciplinary guidelines with special emphasis on complementary and alternative therapies. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2013. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3856149/ Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Abrams D, Couey P, Shade SB, et al.. Cannabinoid-opioid interaction in chronic pain. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2011; 90(6): 844-51. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22048225 Accessed on: 2016-03-09.

ACPM . Use, abuse, misuse, and disposal of prescription pain medication clinical reference. American College Preventive Medicine . 2011. Available at: http://www.acpm.org/?UseAbuseRxClinRef Accessed on: 2015-07-07.

Adams et al. Development of a self-report screening instrument for assessing potential opioid medication misuse in chronic pain patients. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2004; 27: 440-459. Available at: http://www.jpsmjournal.com/article/S0885-3924(04)00101-0/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Adams LL, Gatchel RJ, Robinson RC, et al. Development of a self-report screening instrument for assessing potential opioid medication misuse in chronic pain patients. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2004; 27: 440-459. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15120773

ADAPT Research Group, Martin BK, Szekely C, et al.. Cognitive function over time in the Alzheimer’s Disease Anti-inflammatory Prevention Trial (ADAPT): results of a randomized, controlled trial of naproxen and celecoxib. Arch Neurol. 2008; 65: 895-905. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18474729 Accessed on: 2016-02-03.

Agency Medical Directors’ Group. Interagency Guideline on Opioid Dosing for Chronic Non-cancer Pain: An educational aid to improve care and safety with opioid therapy. Washington State Agency Medical Directors Group. 2010. Available at: http://www.agencymeddirectors.wa.gov/Files/OpioidGdline.pdf Accessed on: 2013-09-06.

Aggarwal A, Kumar R, Sharma RC, Sharma DD. Persistent dystonia following opioid withdrawal.. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry. 2011; 35(2): 640. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20685372 Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Alford DP, Compton P, Samet JH. Acute Pain Management for Patients Receiving Maintenance Methadone or Buprenorphine Therapy. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2006; 144(2): 127-134. Available at: http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=719514 Accessed on: 2009-11-05.

AMA. Promote safe storage and disposal of opioids and all medications.. AMA-ASSN.org. 2017. Available at: https://www.ama-assn.org/sites/default/files/media-browser/public/government/advocacy/opioid-safe-storage-and-disposal.pdf Accessed on: 2017-04-07.

American Academy of Pain Medicine, American Pain Society and American Society of Addiction Medicine. Definitions related to the use of opioids for the treatment of pain. . 2001. Available at: http://opi.areastematicas.com/generalidades/definicionesopiaceos.AAPM.pdf Accessed on: 2010-05-18.

American Academy of Pain Medicine. Long-term Controlled Substances Therapy for Chronic Pain Sample Agreement. American Academy of Pain Medicine. 2001. Available at: https://www.musc.edu/cce/ORDFRMS/pdf/all_all_consent_narcoticmanagementagreement.pdf Accessed on: 2014-05-23.

American Geriatrics Society. Pharmacological management of persistent pain in older persons. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 2009; 57(8): 1331-1346. Available at: http://www.americangeriatrics.org/files/documents/2009_Guideline.pdf Accessed on: 2013-09-16.

American Pain Foundation. Target Chronic Pain Notebook. American Pain Foundation. 2004; updated 2008. Available at: http://www.champ-program.org/static/TargetNotebook.pdf Accessed on: 2014-11-21.

American Pain Society in conjunction with the American Academy of Pain Medicine. Guideline for the Use of Chronic Opioid Therapy in Chronic Noncancer Pain. Evidence Review. . American Pain Society. 2009. Available at: http://americanpainsociety.org/uploads/education/guidelines/chronic-opioid-therapy-cncp.pdfAccessed on: 2010-09-07.

American Pain Society. Pain: Current Understanding of Assessment, Management, and Treatment, Section III: Types of Treatments. American Pain Society . 2006. Available at: http://americanpainsociety.org/uploads/education/npc.pdf Accessed on: 2013-08-13.

American Psychiatric Association (APA). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. American Psychiatric Association. 5th ed. 2013. Available at: https://www.amazon.com/Diagnostic-Statistical-Manual-Mental-Disorders/dp/0890425558/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1492003452&sr=1-1&keywords=dsm+5 Accessed on: 2013-09-16.

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). American Psychiatric Association. 2013; 5: . Available at: http://www.appi.org/products/dsm-manual-of-mental-disorders Accessed on: 2013-07-30.

American Psychological Association. Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9 & PHQ-2). APA.com. 2013. Available at: http://www.apa.org/pi/about/publications/caregivers/practice-settings/assessment/tools/patient-health.aspx Accessed on: 2013-07-18.

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Use of Medications in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use. . June 1, 2015. Available at: http://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/practice-support/guidelines-and-consensus-docs/asam-national-practice-guideline-supplement1b630f9472bc604ca5b7ff000030b21a.pdf?sfvrsn=0 Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

American Society of Anesthesiologists. The Management of Pain. www.asahq.org. 2010. Available at: http://www.asahq.org/ Accessed on: 2010-07-16.

Antman EM, Bennett JS, Daugherty A, et al. Use of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs: an update for clinicians: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2007; 115: 1634-1642. Available at: http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/115/12/1634.long Accessed on: 2016-02-03.

Antoin H, Beasley RD. Opioids for chronic noncancer pain: tailoring the therapy to fit the patient and the pain. Postgrad Med. 2004; 116(3): 37-40, 43-44. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15460088 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Antonucci R, Zaffanello M, Puxeddu E, Porcella A, Cuzzonlin L, Pilloni MD, Fanos V. Use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in pregnancy: Impact on the fetus and newborn. Current Drug Metabolism. 2012; 13: 474-490. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22299823 Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

ASAM. Summary of the Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act. ASAM Advocacy. 2016. Available at: http://www.asam.org/advocacy/issues/opioids/summary-of-the-comprehensive-addiction-and-recovery-act Accessed on: 2016-09-19.

Avouac J, Gossec L, Dougados M. Efficacy and safety of opioids for osteoarthritis: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2007; 15(8): 957-65.

Bair MJ, Polshuck EL, Wu J, Krebs EK, Damush TM, Tu W, Kroenke K. Anxiety but not social stressors predict 12-month depression and pain severity. The Clinical Journal of Pain. 2013; 29: 95-101. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23183264 Accessed on: 2015-07-07.

Baldisseri MR. Impaired healthcare professional. Crit Care Med. 2007; 35(2): S106-16. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17242598 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Ballantyne, JC, Mao, J. Opioid therapy for chronic pain. N Engl J Med. 2003; 349(20): 1943-53. Available at: http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra025411Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Banta-Green CJ, Merrill JO, Doyle SR, Boudreau DM, Calsyn DA. Opioid use behaviors, mental health and pain-development of a typology of chronic pain patients. Drug Alcohol Depend. In Press Epub. 2009. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2716214/ Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Barnett E, Spruijt-Metz D, Unger JB, Sun P, Rohrback LA, Sussman S. Boosting a teen substance use prevention program with motivational interviewing. Substance Use & Misuse. 2012; 47: 418-428. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22216936 Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Baron R, Binder A, Wasner G. Neuropathic pain: Diagnosis, pathophysiological mechanisms, and treatment. The Lancet Neurology. 2010; 9: 807-819. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20650402 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Belgrade MJ, Schamber CD, Lindgren BR . The DIRE score: predicting outcomes of opioid prescribing for chronic pain. J Pain. 2006; 7: 671-81. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16942953 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Bennetto L, Patel NK, Fuller G. Trigeminal neuralgia and its management. BMJ. 2007; 334: 201-205. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1782012/ Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Benyamin R, et al. Opioid Complications and Side Effects. Pain Physician. 2008; 11: 105-120. Available at: http://www.painphysicianjournal.com Accessed on: 2013-07-23.

Berland, D, Rodgers P. Use of opioids for management of chronic nonterminal pain. Am Fam Physician. 2012; 86(3): 252-258. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2012/0801/p252.html Accessed on: 2013-09-06.

Bingham C, Ruffing V. Rheumatoid arthritis treatment. Johns Hopkins Arthritis Center. 2013. Available at: http://www.hopkinsarthritis.org/arthritis-info/rheumatoid-arthritis/ra-treatment/ Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

BMJ Publishing Group. Opioid overdose. http://bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/verify-user-north-american-access.html. 2011; October 27: . Available at: http://bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/monograph/339/treatment/step-by-step.html Accessed on: 2012-05-21.

Boscarino JA, Rukstalis MR, Hoffman SN, et al. Prevalence of prescription opioid-use disorder among chronic pain patients: comparison of the DSM-5 vs. DSM-4 diagnostic criteria. J Addict Dis. 2011; 30(3): 185-94. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21745041 Accessed on: 2012-11-14.

Briley M, Moret C. Treatment of comorbid pain with serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors. CNS Spectr. 2008; 13(7): 22-26.

Brown KS. Integrating Risk Assessment in Opioid Prescribing for Persistent Pain Management. Integrative Pain Center, Tripler Army Medical Center. 2009. Available at: https://pision-rehabpsych.squarespace.com/ Accessed on: 2010-07-22.

Brown RL, Rounds LA. Conjoint screening questionnaires for alcohol and other drug abuse: criterion validity in a primary care practice. Wis Med J. 1995; 94: 135-40. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7778330 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Brushwood DB. Electronic prescription monitoring programs: a data-reporting tool designed to prevent drug persion. Emerging Solutions in Pain Knowledge Series III. MediCom Worldwide, Inc. 2007. Available at: http://www.emergingsolutionsinpain.com/index.php?option=com_continued&cat=20&Itemid=267 Accessed on: 2014-08-05.

Brushwood DB. Maximizing the value of electronic prescription monitoring programs. Journal of Law, Medicine, and Ethics. 2003; 31: 41-54. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1748-720X.2003.tb00058.x/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Burroughs VJ, Maxey RW, Levy RA. Racial and ethnic differences in response to medicines: Toward inpidualized pharmaceutical treatment. J National Medical Assoc. 2002; 9(10): . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2594139/ Accessed on: 2012-05-22.

Butler SF , Budman SH, Fernandez KC, et al. Cross-validation of a screener to predict opioid misuse in chronic pain patients (SOAPP-R). J Addict Med . 2010. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2712300/ Accessed on: 2015-07-14.

Butler SF, Budman SH, Fernandez KC, et al. Development and validation of the current opioid misuse measure. Pain. 2007; 130(1-2): 144-156. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1950245/ Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Butler SF, Fernandez K, Benoit C, et al. Validation of the Revised Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients in Pain (SOAPP-R). J Pain. 2008; 9: 360-372.

CADCA. Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act (CARA). CADCA.org. 2016. Available at: http://www.cadca.org/comprehensive-addiction-and-recovery-act-caraAccessed on: 2016-09-19.

Califano, JA et al. Under the Counter: The persion and Abuse of Controlled Prescription Drugs in the U.S. The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University. 2005. Available at: http://www.centeronaddiction.org/addiction-research/reports/under-the-counter-persion-abuse-controlled-perscription-drugs Accessed on: 2013-09-13.

Campbell CM, Edwards RR. Ethnic differences in pain and pain management. Pain Management. 2012; 2: 219-230. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3654683/ Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Carter GT, Aggarwal SK. Cannabis in the treatment of chronic pain. NABP 2009 Symposium. 2009. Available at: https://www.nabp.net/events/assets/Carter_Aggarwal.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-09.

CASA. National Survey of American Attitudes on Substance Abuse XIII: Teens and Parents. National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse. 2008. Available at: http://www.centeronaddiction.org/addiction-research/reports/national-survey-american-attitudes-substance-abuse-teens-parents-2008

CDC. Unintentional Drug Poisoning in the United States . CDC. 2010; July: . Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5605a1.htm Accessed on: 2012-05-25.

Center for Disease Control. Prescription Painkiller Overdoses, Use and Abuse of Methadone as a Painkiller. CDC Vital Signs. 2012. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/vitalsigns/MethadoneOverdoses/ Accessed on: 2013-07-18.

Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER). Abuse-deterrent opioids – evaluation and labeling . U.S Department of Health and Human Services. 2015. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/drugs/guidancecomplianceregulatoryinformation/guidances/ucm334743.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-07.

Center for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) . What is a prescriber’s role in preventing the persion of prescription drugs?. Partners in Integrity . 2014. Available at: http://www.cms.gov/medicare-medicaid-coordination/fraud-prevention/medicaid-integrity-education/provider-education-toolkits/downloads/prescriber-role-drugpersion.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series 42. DHHS Publication No. (SMA) 05-3922. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Substance Abuse Treatment for Persons With Co-Occurring Disorders. 2005. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64197/ Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Chabal C, Erjavec MK, Jacobson L, Mariano A, Chaney E. Prescription opiate abuse in chronic pain patients: clinical criteria, incidence and predictors. Clin J Pain. 1997; 13(2): 150-155. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9186022 Accessed on: 2014-05-23.

Chan B, Tam LK, Wat CY, et al. Opioids in chronic non-cancer pain. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy. 2011; 12(5): 705-720. Available at: http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.1517/14656566.2011.536335?journalCode=eop Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Chou R, Amir Q, Snow V, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of low back pain: A joint clinical practice guideline from the Americn College of Physicians and the American Pain Society. American College of Physicians. 2007; 147(7): 478-491. Available at: http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=736814 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Chou R, Ballantyne J, Fanciullo G, et al. Research Gaps on Use of Opioids for Chronic Noncancer Pain: Findings From a Review of the Evidence for an American Pain Society and American Academy of Pain Medicine Clinical Practice Guideline. J Pain. 2009b; 10(2): 147-159.

Chou R, Fanciullo G, Fine P, et al. Clinical guidelines for the use of chronic opioid therapy in chronic noncancer pain. J Pain. 2009; 10(2): 113-130. Available at: http://www.jpain.org/article/S1526-5900(08)00831-6/abstract

Chou R, Fanciullo GJ, Fine PG, et al. Opioids for chronic noncancer pain: prediction and identification of aberrant drug-related behaviors: a review of evidence for an American Pain Society and American Academy of Pain Medicine Clinical Practice Guideline. J Pain. 2009a; 10(2): 131-146. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19187890 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Cicero JT, Dart RC, Inciardi JA, Woody GE, Schnoll S, Munoz A. The Development of a Comprehensive Risk-Management Program for Prescription Opioid Analgesics: Researched Abuse, persion, and Addiction-Related Surveillance (RADARS). Pain Medicine. 2007; 8(2): 157-169. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17305687 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Cicero TJ, Inciardi JA, Munoz A. Trends in abuse of Oxycontin and other opioid analgesics in the United States: 2002–2004. J Pain. 2005; 6(10): 662–672. Available at: http://www.jpain.org/article/S1526-5900(05)00656-5/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Cleveland Clinic. Acute vs. Chronic Pain. Treatments & Procedures. 2008. Available at: http://my.clevelandclinic.org/services/anesthesiology/pain-management/diseases-conditions/hic-acute-vs-chronic-pain Accessed on: 2014-08-21.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Assessing pain with PQRSTU. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/cKR27q9g-_o Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Introduction to Buprenorphine. www.buppractice.com. 2009. Available at: http://www.buppractice.com/node/12446 Accessed on: 2010-07-13.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. When to Refer Patients to Specialized Substance Abuse Treatment. www.buppractice.com. 2009. Available at: http://www.buppractice.com/howtorefer

CMS. Calendar Year (CY) 2016 Clinical Laboratory Fee Schedule (CLFS) Preliminary Determinations. . 2016. Available at: https://www.cms.gov/Medicare/Medicare-Fee-for-Service-Payment/ClinicalLabFeeSched/Downloads/CLFS-CY2016-Preliminary-Payment-Determinations.pdf Accessed on: 2016-01-12.

Cole, BE. Recognizing and Preventing Medication persion. Family Practice Management. 2001; 8(9): 37-41. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/fpm/2001/1000/p37.html Accessed on: 2013-09-16.

Cole, E. Recognizing preventing and medication persion: Don’t let persion of pain medication hamper your ability to treat chronic pain. Family Practice Management. 2001; 8(2): 37-41. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/fpm/2001/1000/p37.html Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Compton P, Darakjian J, Miotto K. Screening for addiction in patients with chronic pain and “problematic” substance use: evaluation of a pilot assessment tool. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1998; 16: 355-363. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9879160 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Compton P, Wu SM, Schieffer B, Pham Q, Naliboff BD. Introduction to a self-report version of the Prescription Drug Use Questionnaire and relationship to medication agreement noncompliance. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2008; 36: 383-395. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2630195/ Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Compton P. Should Opioid Abusers be Discharged from Opioid-Analgesic Therapy?. Pain Medicine. 2008; 9(4): 383-390. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18489627 Accessed on: 2014-05-01.

Compton P. The role of urine toxicology in chronic opioid analgesic therapy. Pain Manag Nurs. 2007; 8(4): 166-172. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18036504 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Compton P. Urine toxicology screening: a case study. Emerging Solutions in Pain. 2009. Available at: http://www.emergingsolutionsinpain.com Accessed on: 2009-05-06.

Compton, Peggy. Substance Abuser with Chronic Pain. QuantiaMD. 2010; courseid=30793: . Available at: http://Quantiamd.com Accessed on: 2010-09-07.

Cone et al. Urine drug testing of chronic pain patients: licit and illicit drug patterns. J Anal Toxicol. 2008; 32: 530-543. Available at: http://jat.oxfordjournals.org/content/32/8/530.long Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Coolen, P. Overdose deaths involving prescription opioids among Medicaid enrollees—Washington, 2004-2007. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR). 2009; 58(42): 1171-75. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5842a1.htm Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Cornish MA , Wade NG. Spirituality and religion in group counseling: a literature review with practical guidelines . American Psychological Association . 2010. Available at: http://www.researchgate.net/publication/232591847_Spirituality_and_Religion_in_Group_Counseling_A_Literature_Review_With_Practice_GuidelinesAccessed on: 2015-06-30.

Couper FJ, Logan BK. NHTSA Drugs and Human Performance Fact Sheets (rev 2014). . 2014. Available at: http://www.nhtsa.gov/people/injury/research/job185drugs/technical-page.htm Accessed on: 2015-06-29.

Covidien. EXALGO(TM) Risk Evaluation & Mitigation Strategy. EXALGO(TM) Risk Evaluation & Mitigation Strategy. 2011.

Coxib and traditional NSAID Trialists’ (CNT) Collaboration, Bhala N, Bhala N, et al. Vascular and upper gastrointestinal effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: meta-analyses of inpidual participant data from randomised trials. Lancet. 2013; 382: 769-779. Available at: http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(13)60900-9/abstract Accessed on: 2016-02-03.

Dahan A, et. al.. Incidence, Reversal, and Prevention of Opioid-induced Respiratory Depression. Anesthesiology. 2010; 112: 226-238. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20010421 Accessed on: 2013-07-23.

Dais J, Khosia A, Doulatram G. The successful treatment of opioid withdrawal-induced refractory muscle spasms with 5-HTP in a patient intolerant to clonidine. Pain Physician. 2015; 18: E417-E420. Available at: http://www.painphysicianjournal.com/ Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Dart R. Evaluation of ADFs using RADARS system data . RADARS System. 2011. Available at: http://www.thblack.com/links/RSD/RADARS(R)%20System_2011%20Annual%20Meeting%20Summary.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-08.

Dart, RC. Opioid Abuse, Misuse, and persion: Strategies for Prevention. Researched Abuse, persion and Addiction-Related Surveillance (RADARS). 2009: 11-25. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-4637.2006.00259.x/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Dasgupta N . RADARS system subutex & suboxone: how much is prescribed vs. abuse/persion reports . SAMHSA Meeting on Buprenorphine. 2010. Available at: http://162.99.3.219/presentations/Dasgupta.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-08.

Davis, JL. Chronic Pain Relief: New Treatments. WebMD. 2011. Available at: http://www.webmd.com/pain-management/features/chronic-pain-relief-new-treatmentsAccessed on: 2011-03-10.

De Gregori S, De Gregori M, Ranzani GN, et al. Morphine metabolism, transport and brain disposition. Metabolic Brain Disease. 2012; 27(1): 1-5. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22193538 Accessed on: 2015-06-29.

DEA. Pharmacist’s Manual – an informational outline of the controlled substances act . Office of persion Control . 2010. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/pubs/manuals/pharm2/index.html Accessed on: 2015-07-07.

DEA. Schedules of Controlled Substances: Placement of Tramadol Into Schedule IV. DEA Office of persion Control Website. 2014; Rules – 2014: 21 CFR Part 1308 Docket No. DEA-351. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/fed_regs/rules/2014/fr0702.htm Accessed on: 2014-08-07.

Deding M , Saidj M , Brännström L. 12-step programs for reducing illicit drug use: protocol for a systematic review . The Campbell Collaboration . 2013. Available at: http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/lib/project/174/ Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Deyo RA, Von Korff M, Duhrkoop D. Opioids for low back pain. The British Medical Journal. 2015; 350: g6380. Available at: http://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.g6380 Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Donahue KE, Gartlehner G, Jonas DE. Systematic review: comparative effectiveness and harms of disease modifying medications for rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Intern Med. 2008; 148: 124-134.

Dowell D , Kunins HV, Farley TA. Opioid analgesics – risky drugs, not risky patients . JAMA . 2013; 309(21): . Available at: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1686609 Accessed on: 2015-07-08.

Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain — United States, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016; ePub: March 2016: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1er. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/rr/rr6501e1.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-16.

Dowling LS, Gatchel RJ, Adams LL, Stowell AW, Bernstein D. An evaluation of the predictive validity of the Pain Medication Questionnaire with a heterogeneous group of patients with chronic pain. J Opioid Manag. 2007; 3: 257-266. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18181380 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN). Highlights of the 2009 Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) findings on drug-related emergency department visits. http://www.samhsa.gov. 2010. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov Accessed on: 2011-01-11.

Drug and Alcohol Services Information System (DASIS). Characteristics of Primary Prescription and OTC Treatment Admissions: 2002. The DASIS Report, Office of Applied Studies, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2004. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/node/20 Accessed on: 2014-10-31.

Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). Automation of Reports and Consolidated Orders System (ARCOS). U.S. Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration, Office of persion Control. 2009. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/arcos/index.html Accessed on: 2009-12-07.

Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). Practitioner’s manual – an informational outline of the controlled substances act . Office of persion Control . 2006. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/pubs/manuals/pract/pract_manual012508.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). State Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs: Questions & Answers. U.S. Department of Justice. 2008. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/faq/rx_monitor.htm Accessed on: 2009-06-24.

Drug Enforcement Administration. State Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs. U.S. Department of Justice. 2009. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/faq/rx_monitor.htm Accessed on: 2009-12-04.

Drug Enforcement Administration. State Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs. U.S. Department of Justice. 2010. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/faq/rx_monitor.htm Accessed on: 2010-09-17.

Drugs.com. Naloxone. FDA Professional Drug Information. Copyright 2000-2015; Last updated Jan-Feb, 2015: . Available at: http://www.drugs.com/pro/naloxone.html Accessed on: 2015-02-02.

Dublin S, Walker RL, Jackson ML, Nelson JC , Weiss NS , Von Korff M, Jackson LA. Use of Opioids or Benzodiazepines and Risk of Pneumonia in Older Adults: A Population-Based Case-Control Study. J Am Geriatr Soc.. 2011; 59: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3223721/ Accessed on: 2013-09-13.

Dunn KM, Saunders KW, Rutter CM, et al. Opioid prescriptions for chronic pain and overdose: a cohort study. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2010; 152(2): 85-92. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3000551/ Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

DuPont RL, McLellan AT, White WL, Merlo LJ, Gold MS. Setting the standard for recovery: physicians’ health programs. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2009; 36: 159-171. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19161896 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Dysvik E , Kvaløy JT , Natvig GK. The effectiveness of an improved multidisciplinary pain management programme: a 6- and 12-month follow-up study.. J Adv Nurs . 2012; 68(5): 1061-72. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22050304 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Eccher DF. Maine’s Prescription Monitoring Program: Preventing Prescription Drug Misuse. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Substance Abuse. 2009. Available at: http://www.maine.gov/dhhs/osa/data/pmp/files/ME_PMP_Intro_20090113.pdf Accessed on: 2009-06-25.

Eggleston W, Clark KH, Marraffa JM. Loperamide abuse associated with cardiac dysrhythmia and death. Annals of Emergency Medicine. 2016; DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.annemergmed.2016.03.047: . Available at: http://www.annemergmed.com/article/S0196-0644(16)30052-X/fulltext Accessed on: 2016-05-04.

Ehde DM, Dillworth TM, Turner JA. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for inpiduals with chronic pain. American Psychological Association. 2014; 69: 153-166. Available at: https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/amp-a0035747.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-02.

Emmons K, Rollnick S. Motivational interviewing in health care settings. Opportunities and limitations. Am J Prev Med. 2001; 20(1): 68-74. Available at: http://www.ajpmonline.org/article/S0749-3797(00)00254-3/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Erdemoglu AK, Koc R. Brief Pain Inventory score identifying and discriminating neuropathic and nociceptive pain. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica. 2013; 128: 351-358. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23594114 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

FDA. Blueprint for Prescriber Continuing Education Program 2011 (rev 2013). http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/rems/ERLA%20Opioids_2014-12-29_FDA%20BLUEPRINT%20FOR%20PRESCRIBER%20EDUCATION.pdf. 2011. Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/rems/ERLA%20Opioids_2014-12-29_FDA%20BLUEPRINT%20FOR%20PRESCRIBER%20EDUCATION.pdf Accessed on: 2012-05-18.

FDA. ER/LA Opioid Analgesic Class Labeling Changes and Postmarket Requirements. New Safety Measures Announced for Extended-release and Long-acting Opioids. 2013. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/InformationbyDrugClass/UCM367697.pdf Accessed on: 2014-08-22.

FDA. FDA announces enhanced warnings for immediate-release opioid pain medications related to risks of misuse, abuse, addiction, overdose and death. FDA News Release. March 22, 2016. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm491739.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-25.

FDA. FDA announces safety labeling changes and postmarket study requirements for extended-release and long-acting opioid analgesics. FDA Website. 2013. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/newsevents/newsroom/pressannouncements/ucm367726.htm Accessed on: 2014-08-01.

FDA. FDA approves injectable drug to treat opioid-dependent patients. U.S. Food and Drug Administration Website. 2010; October 12: . Available at: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm229109.htm Accessed on: 2010-10-26.

FDA. FDA Drug Safety Communication: FDA warns about several safety issues with opioid pain medicines; requires label changes . . 3/22/2016. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm489676.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-24.

Federation of State Medical Boards of the United States. Model policy for the use of controlled substances for the treatment of pain. Federation of State Medical Boards of the United States, Inc. 2004. Available at: http://www.fsmb.org/ Accessed on: 2010-05-13.

Ferri CM. Defining Opioid Tolerance and Dependency. Journal of Pain and Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 2013; 27: 392-393. Available at: http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.3109/15360288.2013.847518?journalCode=ppc Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Fine PG. Opioid Rotation. J Pain Symptom Management. 2009. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19735902 Accessed on: 2012-05-18.

Fingerhut, LA. Increases in poisoning and methadone-related deaths: United States, 1999-2005. National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). 2008. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/poisoning/poisoning.pdf Accessed on: 2010-03-05.

Fishbain DA, Cole B, Lewis J, Rosomoff HL, Rosomoff RS. What percentage of chronic nonmalignant pain patients exposed to chronic opioid analgesic therapy develop abuse/addiction and/or aberrant drug-related behaviors? A structured evidence-based review.. Pain Med. 2008; 9(4): 444-59. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18489635 Accessed on: 2013-09-13.

Fishman SM, Bandman TB, Edwards A, Borsook D. The opioid contract in the management of chronic pain. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1999; 18(1): 6-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10439570 Accessed on: 2013-09-13.

Fitzgibbon DR, Rathmell JP, Michna E, Stephens LS, Posner KL, Domino KB. Malpractice claims associated with medication management for chronic pain. Anesthesiology. 2010; 112(4): 777-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20234314 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Fleeter TB. Informed consent: More than just a signature. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. 2010. Available at: http://www.aaos.org/news/aaosnow/jan10/managing4.asp Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Florida Legislature. Health Professions and Occupations: General Provisions . Online Sunshine. 2013. Available at: http://www.leg.state.fl.us/statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&URL=0400-0499/0456/0456.html Accessed on: 2013-07-30.

Fosbol EL, Folke F, Jacobsen S, et al. Cause-specific cardiovascular risk associated with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs among healthy inpiduals. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2010; 3: 395-405. Available at: http://circoutcomes.ahajournals.org/content/3/4/395.full Accessed on: 2016-02-03.

Frank E, Carrera JS, Elon L, Hertzberg VS. Basic demographics, health practices, and health status of US medical students. American Journal of Preventative Medicine. 2006; 31(6): 499-505. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17169711 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Frank E, Elon L, Naimi T, Brewer R. Alcohol consumption and alcohol counseling behavior among US medical students: cohort study. BMJ. 2008; 337:a2155: 1-10. Available at: http://www.bmj.com/content/337/bmj.a2155 Accessed on: 2010-08-18.

Freeman HP, Payne S. Racial injustice in health care. N Engl J Med. 2000; 342: 1045-1047. Available at: http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200004063421411 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Freynhagen R, Geisslinger G, Schug SA. Opioids for chronic non-cancer pain. British Medical Journal. 2013; 346: . Available at: http://www.bmj.com/content/346/bmj.f2937 Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

FSMB. Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office. FSMB Website http://www.fsmb.org. 2013. Available at: https://www.fsmb.org/Media/Default/PDF/FSMB/Advocacy/2013_model_policy_treatment_opioid_addiction.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-22.

Galanter M, Dermatis H, Mansky P, McIntyre J, Perez-Fuentes G. Substance-abusing physicians: monitoring and twelve-step-based treatment. American Journal on Addictions. 2007; 16:2: 117-123. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17453613 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Galvez R, Perez C. Is morphine still the best reference opioid?. Future Medicine. 2012; 2(1): 33-45. Available at: http://www.futuremedicine.com/doi/abs/10.2217/pmt.11.78 Accessed on: 2015-06-29.

Garra G, Singer AJ, Taira BR, et al. Validation of the Wong-Baker FACES pain rating scale in pediatric emergency department patients. Academic Emergency Medicine. 2010; 17: 50-54. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20003121 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Gerrits MM, Vogelzangs N, Oppen P, Marwijk WJ, Horst H, Penninx B. Impact of pain on the course of depressive and anxiety disorders. Pain. 2012; 153: 429-436. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22154919 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Gibbs LS and Haddox JD. Lawful Prescribing and the Prevention of persion. Journal of Pain & Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 2003; 17(1): 5-14. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14640336 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Gibbs LS, Haddox JD. Lawful prescribing and the prevention of persion. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2003. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14640336 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Gilmore B, Michael M. Treatment of acute migraine headache. Am Fam Physician. 2011; 83(3): 271-80. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21302868Accessed on: 2012-11-28.

Gilmore B, Michael M. Treatment of acute migraine headache. American Family Physician. 2011; 83: 271-280. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2011/0201/p271.html Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Gilson AM, Joranson DE. U.S. Policies Relevant to the Prescribing of Opioid Analgesics for the Treatment of Pain in Patients with Addictive Disease. The Clinical Journal of Pain. 2002; 18: S91-S98. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12479259 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Gislason GH, Jacobsen S, Rasmussen JN, et al. Risk of death or reinfarction associated with the use of selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors and nonselective nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs after acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2006; 113: 2906-2913. Available at: http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/113/25/2906.long Accessed on: 2016-02-03.

Giulia N , McDonough CM , Cabral H, et al . Cost-utility of cognitive behavioral therapy for low back pain from the commercial payer perspective . Spine . 2015; 40(10): 725-733. Available at: http://journals.lww.com/spinejournal/Abstract/2015/05150/Cost_Utility_of_Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy_for.12.aspx Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Goldenberg DL, Schur PH, Romain PL. Initial treatment of fibromyalgia in adults. UpToDate. 2015. Available at: http://www.uptodate.com/contents/initial-treatment-of-fibromyalgia-in-adults Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Goli V, Webster LR, Lamson MJ, et al. Effects of concurrent intravenous morphine sulfate and naltrexone hydrochloride on end-tidal carbon dioxide. Harm Reduction Journal. 2012; 9(13): . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22420453 Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Goodwin JL, Kraemer JJ, Bajwa ZH. The use of opioids in the treatment of osteoarthritis: when, why, and how?. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2009; 11(1): 5-14. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19171106 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Gourlay DL, Heit HA , Caplan YH , et al.. Urine drug testing in clinical practice: the art and science of patient care . John Hopkins Medicine . 2012; 5: . Available at: http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/ama/downloads/udt5_Copy.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-15.

Gourlay DL, Heit HA, Almahrezi A. Universal precautions in pain medicine: A rational approach to the treatment of chronic pain. Pain Medicine. 2005; 6(2): 107-112. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15773874 Accessed on: 2013-09-13.

Gourlay DL, Heit HA. Compliance monitoring in chronic pain management.. In SM Fishman, JC Ballantyne, JP Rathmell (eds). Bonica’s Management of Pain, Fourth Edition Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2010. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Bonicas-Management-Pain-Fishman/dp/0781768276 Accessed on: 2014-08-28.

Gourlay DL, Heit HA. Universal Precautions Revisited: Managing the Inherited Pain Patient. Pain Medicine. 2009; 10(S2): S115-S123. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19691682 Accessed on: 2013-09-16.

Gourlay DL, Howard HA, Yale CH. Urine Drug Testing in Clinical Practice: Dispelling the Myths & Designing Strategies. California Academy of Family Physicians and PharamCom Group, Inc. 2006: Edition 3. Available at: http://www.mc.uky.edu/equip-4-pcps/documents/section8/urine%20drug%20testing%20in%20clinical%20practice.pdf Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Green CR, Ndao-Brumblay SK, West B, Washington T. Differences in prescription opioid analgesic availability: Comparing minority and withe pharmacies across michigan. The Journal of Pain. 2005; 6: 689-699. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16202962 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Green TC , Mann MR , Bowman SE , et al . How does use of a prescription monitoring program change medical practice?. Pain Medicine . 2012; 13: 1314-1323. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22845339 Accessed on: 2015-07-08.

Greenwald MK, Schuh KJ, Hopper JA, Schuster CR, Johanson CE. Effects of buprenorphine sublingual tablet maintenance on opioid drug-seeking behavior by humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2002; 160(4): 344-352. Available at: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00213-001-0975-0 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Gupta DK, Avram MJ. Rational Opioid Dosing in the Elderly: Dose and Dosing Interval When Initiating Opioid Therapy. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 2012; 91(2): 339-343. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22205194 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Hall AJ, Logan JE, Toblin RL, et al. Patterns of abuse among inuntentional pharmaceutical overdose fatalities. JAMA. 2008; 300(22): 2613-2620. Available at: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=183046 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Hall AJ, Logan JE, Toblin RL, et al.. Patterns of Abuse Among Unintentional Pharmaceutical Overdose Fatalities. JAMA. 2008; 300(22): 2613-2620. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19066381 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Hall AJ, Paulozzi LJ. Prescription Opioids and Overdose Deaths—Reply. JAMA. 2009; 301(17): 1767-1768. Available at: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=183831 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Hall DE, Prochazka AV, Fink AS. Informed consent for clinical treatment. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2012; 184: 533-540. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22392947 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Harm Reduction Coalition. Naloxone Kit Materials. Harm Reduction Coalition. . Available at: http://harmreduction.org/issues/overdose-prevention/tools-best-practices/od-kit-materials/ Accessed on: 2015-09-04.

Harned M, Sloan P. Safety concerns with long-term opioid use. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2016; PMID: 27070052: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27070052 Accessed on: 2016-04-26.

Harwood I, Stansfeld S. Doctors and Alcohol Misuse. StudentBMJ . 2006; 14: 265-308. Available at: http://student.bmj.com/student/student-bmj.html Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Heit HA, Gourlay DL. Urine drug testing in pain medicine. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2004; 27(3): 260-267. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15010104 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Heit, H. Aberrant behaviors – refer or triage. Emerging Solutions in Pain. Ask the Expert. http://emergingsolutionsinpain.com/. 2009. Available at: http://www.emergingsolutionsinpain.com/login?return=aW5kZXgucGhwP29wdGlvbj1jb21fbWFtcyZ2aWV3PWFydGljbGUmc2VjaWQ9MTcmYXJ0aWQ9MjM0Jkl0ZW1pZD0yMjA= Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Hill KP. Medical marijuana for treatment of chronic pain and other medical and psychiatric problems. A clinical review. . JAMA. 2015; 313(24): 2474-2483. Available at: http://cannabisclinicians.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/JAMA-Chronic-Pain-2015.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-10.

Hippisley-Cox J, Coupland C. Risk of myocardial infarction in patients taking cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitors or conventional non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: population based nested case-control analysis. BMJ. 2005; 330: 1366. Available at: http://www.bmj.com/content/330/7504/1366?linkType=FULL&journalCode=bmj&resid=330/7504/1366 Accessed on: 2016-02-03.

Holmes CP, Gatchel RJ, Adams LL, Stowell AW, et al. An opioid screening instrument: long-term evaluation of the utility of Pain Medication Questionnaire. Pain Pract. 2006; 6: 74-88. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17309714 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Hooten WM , Timming R, Belgrade M, et al. Assessment and management of chronic pain . Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement . 2013. Available at: https://www.icsi.org/_asset/bw798b/Chronic Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Hospice Palliative Care. Principles of Opioid Management. Hospice Palliative Care Program. 2006. Available at: http://www.fraserhealth.ca/media/16FHSymptomGuidelinesOpioid.pdf Accessed on: 2012-05-09.

Huang AR, Mallet L. Prescribing opioids in older people. Maturitas. 2013; 74: 123-129. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23201325 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Häuser W, Walitt B, Fitzcharles M, Sommer C. Review of pharmacological therapies in fibromyalgia syndrome. Arthritis Research & Therapy. 2014; 16: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24433463 Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Inciardi JA, Surratt HL, Cicero TJ, et al . Prescription opioid abuse and persion in an urban community: the results of an ultra-rapid assessment. Pain Med . 2009; 10(3): 537-548. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2719877/ Accessed on: 2015-07-07.

Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement (ICSI). Pain, Chronic; Assessment and Management of: Guideline Summary. Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement (ICSI). 2011. Available at: https://www.icsi.org/_asset/bw798b/ChronicPain.pdf Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Improving the Quality of Health Care for Mental and Substance-Use Conditions: Quality Chasm Series. Board on Health Care services. 2006. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/read/11470/chapter/5#78 Accessed on: 2010-07-06.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Crossing the Quality Chasm: A New Health System for the 21st Century. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. 2001. Available at: http://iom.nationalacademies.org/Reports/2001/Crossing-the-Quality-Chasm-A-New-Health-System-for-the-21st-Century.aspx Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Health Professions Education: A Bridge to Quality. National Academies Press, Washington, DC. 2003. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/catalog/10681/health-professions-education-a-bridge-to-quality Accessed on: 2014-12-11.

Irwin RS, Rippe JM. Irwin and Rippe’s Intensive Care Medicine. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2012. Available at: http://www.lww.com/Product/9781608311835

Jaine R, Jaine S. Antidepressants in the treatment of chronic pain. Practical Pain Management . 2011. Available at: http://www.practicalpainmanagement.com/treatments/pharmacological/non-opioids/antidepressants-treatment-chronic-pain?page=0,0 Accessed on: 2012-12-03.

Jarzyna D, et. al.. American Society of Pain Management Nursing Guidelines on Monitoring for Opioid-Induced Sedation and Respiratory Depression. Pain Management Nursing . 2011; 12: 118-145. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21893302 Accessed on: 2014-08-25.

Jensen MP, Moore MR, Bockow TB, Ehde DM, Engel JM. Psychosocial factors and adjustment to chronic pain in persons with physical disabilities: a systematic review. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2011; 92: 146-160. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21187217 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Kahan M, Srivastava A, Wilson L, Gourlay D, Midmer D. Misuse of and dependence on opioids: Study of chronic pain patients. Can Fam Physician. 2006; 52(9): 1081-1087. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1783735/ Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Kalunian KC, Tugwell P, Curtis MR. Initial pharmacologic therapy of osteoarthritis. UpToDate. 2015. Available at: http://www.uptodate.com/contents/initial-pharmacologic-therapy-of-osteoarthritis Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Kaner E, Rapley T, May C. Seeing through the glass darkly? A qualitative exploration of GPs’ drinking and their alcohol intervention practices. Family Practice. 2006; 23: 481-487. Available at: http://fampra.oxfordjournals.org/content/23/4/481.full.pdf+html Accessed on: 2010-08-18.

Katz N, Fanciullo GJ. Role of urine toxicology testing in the management of chronic opioid therapy. Clin J Pain. 2002; 19(4): S76-S82. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12479257 Accessed on: 2014-02-27.

Katz NP, Adams EH, Benneyan JC, Birnbaum HG, Budman SH et al. Foundations of opioid risk management. Clinical Journal of Pain. 2007; 23: 103-118. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17237659 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Keefe FJ. Cognitive behavioral therapy for managing pain. The Clinical Psychologist. 1996; 49(3): 4-5. Available at: http://www.apa.org/pisions/p12/rev_est/cbt_pain.html Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Kessler RC. The epidemiology of dual diagnosis. Biological Psychiatry. 2004; 56(10): 730–737. Available at: http://www.biologicalpsychiatryjournal.com/article/S0006-3223(04)00739-5/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Ko TM, Wong CS, Wu JY, et al. Pharmacogenomics for personalized pain medicine. Acta Anaesthesiologica Taiwanica. 2016; 1: 24-30. Available at: http://www.e-aat.com/article/S1875-4597(15)30027-8/fulltext Accessed on: 2017-05-31.

Koes BW , Tulder MV, Lin CWC, et al. An updated overview of clinical guidelines for the management of non-specific low back pain in primary care. Eur Spine J. 2010; 19: 2075-2094. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20602122 Accessed on: 2015-07-08.

Krantz MJ, Kutinsky IB, Robertson AD, et al. Dose-related effects of methadone on QT prolongation in a series of patients with torsade de pointes. Pharmacotherapy. 2003; 23: 802-05. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12820821 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Krantz MJ, Mehler PS. Treating opioid dependence. Growing implications for primary care. Arch Intern Med. 2004; 164(3): 277-88. Available at: http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=216641 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Krebs EE, Lorenz KA, Bair MJ. Development and initial validation of the PEG, a three-item scale assessing pain intensity and interference. J Gen Intern Med. 2009; 24(6): 733-738. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2686775/ Accessed on: 2016-04-26.

Lande RG, Marin BA, Chang AS, Mason S, Lande GR. A survey of alcohol consumption among first-year military medical students. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2007; 33(4): 605-10. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17668346 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Laudet AB. Substance Abuse Treatment Providers’ Referral to Self-Help: Review and Future Empirical Directions. Int J Self Help Self Care. 2000; 1(3): 213-225. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2112772/ Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Lipman AG. Understanding Opioid Tolerance A Seriously Overestimated Phenomenon. Journal of Pain and Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 2013; 27: 318-319. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24303831 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Loxterkamp D. Helping ‘them’: our role in recovery from opioid dependence. Ann Fam Med. 2006; 4(2): 168-71. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1467002/ Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Madsen MV, Gøtzsche PC, Hróbjartsson A. Acupuncture treatment for pain: systematic review of randomized clinical trials with acupuncture, placebo acupuncture, and no acupuncture groups. BMJ. 2009; 338: 13-115. Available at: http://www.bmj.com/content/338/bmj.a3115 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Manchikanti L, et. al.. American Society of Interventional Physicians (ASIPP) Guidelines for Responsible Opioid Prescribing in Chronic Non-Cancer Pain: Part 2 – Guidance . Pain Physician. 2012; 15: 67-116. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22786449 Accessed on: 2013-07-22.

Manchikanti L, Singh V, Kloth D. Interventional pain management practice policies. ASIPP.org. 2002. Available at: http://www.asipp.org/documents/ASIPP_Guidelines%20II.PDF Accessed on: 2010-10-01.

Marshall, PS. Physical Functional Ability Questionnaire (FAQ5). In: Assessment and Management of Chronic Pain, 5th edition. Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement. 2011; 14: Appendix C:99. Available at: http://www.generationsprimarycare.com/assets/pain-contract.pdf Accessed on: 2017-04-10.

Martin DP, Bhalla T, Beltran R, et al. The safety of prescribing opioids in pediatrics. Expert opinion in drug safety. 2014; 13(1): 93-101. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24073760 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Martin JF. Privacy and confidentiality. Handbook of Global Bioethics. 2013; 1: 119-137. Available at: http://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-2512-6_72#page-1 Accessed on: 2015-06-23.

Mayo Clinic Staff. Migraine. Mayo Clinic Health Information. 2012. Available at: http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/migraine-headache/basics/definition/con-20026358 Accessed on: 2014-08-26.

McCabe SE, Boyd CJ, Cranford JA, Teter CJ. Motives for nonmedical use of prescription opioids among high school seniors in the United States: Self-treatment and beyond. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. 2009; 163(8): 739-744.

McCulloch, DK. Chronic Opioid Therapy Safety Guideline for Patients With Chronic Non-Cancer Pain. Group Health. 2010, rev. 2012. Available at: http://www.ghc.org/all-sites/guidelines/chronicOpioid.pdf Accessed on: 2013-09-06.

McLellan AT, Turner BJ. Chronic noncancer pain management and opioid overdose: time to change prescribing practices. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2010; 152(2): 123-124. Available at: http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=745524 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

McNicol ED, Midbari A, Eisenberg E. Opioids for neuropathic pain. Cochrane Database System of Reviews. 2013; 8(8): CD006146. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23986501 Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

McPherson ML. Demystifying Opioid Conversion Calculations: A Guide for Effective Dosing. Available in Google Books. 2009. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Demystifying-Opioid-Conversion-Calculations-Effective/dp/1585281980 Accessed on: 2010-05-11.

McWilliams LA, Goodwin RD, Cox BJ. Depression and anxiety associated with three pain conditions: results from a nationally representative sample. Pain. 2004; 111(1-2): 77-83. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15327811 Accessed on: 2012-12-03.

MDBiosciences.com. Nociception, Neuropathic and Inflammatory Pain. Target Inflammatoin: An Applications Newsletter for Inflammatory Research. 2006. Available at: http://cdn2.hubspot.net/hub/42723/file-5409214-pdf/docs/newsletter-fall06.pdf Accessed on: 2014-12-11.

Mdege ND, Lang J . Screening instruments for detecting illicit drug use/abuse that could be useful in general hospital wards: a systematic review. Addictive Behaviors . 2011; 36(12): 1111-1119. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21821364 Accessed on: 2015-07-14.

Meghani et al. Predictors of resolution of aberrant drug behavior in chronic pain patients treated in a structured opioid risk management program. Pain Med. 2009. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19523029?ordinalpos=4&itool=Email.EmailReport.Pubmed_ReportSelector.Pubmed_RVDocSum Accessed on: 2009-03-31.

Meissner K, Avram MJ, Yermolenka V, et al. Cyclosporine-inhibitable Blood-Brain Barrier Drug Transport Influences Clinical Morphine Pharmacodynamics. Anesthesiology. 2013; 119(4): 941-953. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23851346 Accessed on: 2015-06-29.

Melzack R. The McGill Pain Questionnaire: major properties and scoring methods. Pain. 1975; 1: 277-299. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1235985 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Menefee Pujol LA, Katz N, Zacharoff KL. The Role of Referral for Consultation in Pain Management. PainEDU Manual Updates. 2009. Available at: https://www.painedu.org/login-check.asp?targetpage= Accessed on: 2009-10-27.

Merck. Types of Pain. The Merck Manual Home Health Handbook for Patients & Caregivers. 2007. Available at: http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/brain,-spinal-cord,-and-nerve-disorders/pain/overview-of-pain Accessed on: 2014-08-25.

Merlo LJ, Gold MS. Prescription opioid abuse and dependence among physicians: hypotheses and treatment. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2008; 16: 181-194. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18569039 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Merrick M. Prescription opioids and overdose deaths. JAMA. 2009; 301(17): 1767. Available at: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=183832 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Merrill JO, Von Korff M, Banta-Green CJ, et al. Prescribed opioid difficulties, depression and opioid dose among chronic opioid therapy patients. General Hospital Psychiatry. 2012; 34: 581-587. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22959422 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Middleton P, Pollard H. Are chronic low back pain outcomes improved with co-management of concurrent depression?. Chiro Osteopat. 2005; 13(1): . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182702/ Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Miller WR, Rollnick S . Motivational interviewing. Helping people change.. Applications of Motivational Interviewing . 2012; 3: . Available at: http://www.guilford.com/books/Motivational-Interviewing/Miller-Rollnick/9781609182274 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Moore TM , Jones T , Browder JH, et al. A comparison of common screening methods for predicting aberrant drug-related behavior among patients receiving opioids for chronic pain management. Pain Medicine . 2009; 10(8): 1426-1433. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-4637.2009.00743.x/abstract Accessed on: 2015-07-14.

Morone NE, Greco CM, Weiner DK. Mindfulness meditation for the treatment of chronic low back pain in older adults: A randomized controlled pilot study. Pain. 2008; 134(3): 310-319. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2254507/ Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Morrison RS, Wallenstein S, et al. “We Don’t Carry That”-Failure of pharmacies in predominately nonwhite neighborhoods to stock opioid analgesics. New Engl J Med. 2000; 342: 1023-1026. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10749965 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

NAABT.org. Physical Dependence and Addiction An Important Distinction. The National Alliance of Advocates for Buprenorphine Treatment. 2014. Available at: http://www.naabt.org/addiction_physical-dependence.cfm Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Nafziger AN, Bertino JS. Utility and application of urine drug testing in chronic pain management with opioids. Clinical Journal of Pain. 2009; 25(1): 73-79. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19158549 Accessed on: 2013-09-16.

Nalamachu SR. Opioid Rotation in Clinical Practice. Advances in Therapy. 2012; 29(10): 849-863. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23054690Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

NaloxoneInfo.org. Naloxone Information. NaloxoneInfo.org. . Available at: http://naloxoneinfo.org/sites/default/files/Frequently%20Asked%20Questions-Naloxone_EN.pdf Accessed on: 2015-09-04.

National Cancer Institute. PDQ® Cannabis and Cannabinoids. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Date last modified: 2016. Available at: http://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/cam/patient/cannabis-pdq#link/_11 Accessed on: 2016-03-09.

National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. NIH Analysis Shows Americans are in Pain. National Institute of Health. 2015. Available at: https://nccih.nih.gov/news/press/08112015?nav=pin Accessed on: 2015-10-02.

National Drug Intelligence Center. Heroin Distribution in Three Cities: New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles. Johnstown, Pa: U.S. Department of Justice. Product 2001-R0370-001. 2000a.

National Drug Intelligence Center. Information Bulletin January 2001: OxyContin persion and Abuse. Johnstown, Pa: National Drug Intelligence Center. Product 2001-L0424-001. 2001. Available at: http://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs/651/651t.htm Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

National Drug Intelligence Center. National Drug Threat Assessment 2001: The Domestic Perspective. Johnstown, Pa: U.S. Department of Justice. Product 2001-SQ0317-001. 2000b. Available at: http://books.google.com/books/about/National_drug_threat_assessment_2001.html?id=JexlmaUMKRwC Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

National Guideline Clearinghouse (NGC)/National Headache Foundation (NHF). Treatment of primary headache: acute migraine treatment. Standards of care for headache diagnosis and treatment. Based on: Standards of care for headache diagnosis and treatment. Chicago (IL): National Headache Foundation. 2004: 27-39. Available at: http://www.headaches.org/2007/11/19/standards-of-care-for-headache-diagnosis-and-treatment/ Accessed on: 2014-08-26.

National Pain Foundation. Migraine Headache. National Pain Foundation, Inc. 2009. Available at: http://www.nationalpainfoundation.org/cat/97/migraine-headacheAccessed on: 2009-06-25.

NCCAM. Get the Facts: Acupuncture for Pain. NCCAM Online. 2009. Available at: http://www.medicalacupuncture.org/ForPatients/ArticlesByPhysiciansAboutAcupuncture/NCCAMAcupunctureInformation.aspx Accessed on: 2014-08-21.

NDIC. Methadone persion, Abuse, and Misuse: Deaths Increasing at Alarming Rate. National Drug Intelligence Center. 2010. Available at: http://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs25/25930/25930p.pdf

Nicholas AS, Molloy AR, Brooker C. Using opioids with persisting noncancer pain: A biopsychosocial perspective. Clin J Pain. 2006; 22: 137–146. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16428947 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Nichols R. Pain Management in Patients with Addictive Disease. The American Journal of Nursing. 2003; 103(3): 87-90. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12626948 Accessed on: 2014-08-25.

Nicholson B. Benefits of extended-release opioid analgesic formulations in the treatment of chronic pain.. Pain Practice. 2009; 9: 71-81. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19019047 Accessed on: 2013-07-18.

Noble M, Treadwell JR, Tregear SJ, Coates VH, Wiffen PJ, Akafomo C, Schoelles KM. Long-term opioid management for chronic non-cancer pain. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2010; 1: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20091598

O’Sullivan SB, Schmitz TJ, Fulk GD. Physical Rehabilitation. DavisPlus. 2014; 6: . Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Physical-Rehabilitation-OSullivan/dp/0803625790 Accessed on: 2015-07-02.

Obermann M. Treatment options in trigeminal neuralgia. Therapeutic Advances in Neurological Disorders. 2010; 3: 107-115. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3002644/ Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP). Proper Disposal of Prescription Drugs. White House Drug Policy. 2009. Available at: http://www.whitehouse.gov/ondcp Accessed on: 2009-05-18.

Office of National Drug Control Policy. Pulse Check: trends in drug abuse, January-June 2002 reporting period. Publication NCJ-197242. 2002. Available at: https://www.ncjrs.gov/ondcppubs/publications/drugfact/pulsechk/pulse_nov02.pdf Accessed on: 2006-01-31.

Oslund S, Robinson RC, Clark TM, et al. Long-term effectiveness of a comprehensive pain management program: strengthening the case for interdisciplinary care. Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent) . 2009; 22(3): 211-214. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2709080/ Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Overdyk FJ. Initiatives in Safe Patient Care: Postoperative Respiratory Depression and Opioids. Saxe Healthcare Communications. 2009; 1-8: . Available at: http://www.initiatives-patientsafety.org/assets/initiatives1.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-02.

Pasero C, McCoffery M. Reversing Respiratory Depression with Naloxone. The American Journal of Nursing. 2003; 100: 26. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10683639 Accessed on: 2013-09-13.

Passik S. Moment of truth and techniques needed to manage the patient with chronic pain. http://www.emergingsolutionsinpain.com. 2008. Available at: http://www.medscape.org/viewarticle/587118 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Passik S. Psychiatric and pain characteristics of prescription drug abusers entering drug rehabilitation. Journal of Pain and Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 2006; 20(2): 5-13.

Passik SD, Kirsh KL, Casper D. Addiction-related assessment tools and pain management: instruments for screening, treatment planning and monitoring compliance. Pain Med. 2008; 9: S145-S166.

Passik SD, Kirsh KL, Webster L. Pseudoaddiction revisited: a commentary on clinical and historical considerations. Pain Management. 2011; 1(3): 239-248. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24646390 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Passik SD, Kirsh KL. Managing Pain in Patients With Aberrant Drug-Taking Behaviors. Journal of Supportive Oncology. 2005; 3(1): 83–86. Available at: http://www.oncologypractice.com/jso/journal/articles/0301083.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Passik SD, Kirsh KL. Opioid therapy in patients with a history of substance abuse. CNS Drugs. 2004; 18(1): 13-25. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8851374 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Passik SD, Schein JR, Dodd SL, et al. A new tool to assess and document pain outcomes in chronic pain patients receiving opioid therapy. Clin Ther. 2004; 26(4): 552-61. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0149291804900574 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Passik SD, Weinreb HJ. Managing chronic nonmalignant pain: Overcoming obstacles to the use of opioids. Adv Ther. 2000; 17: 70-83.

Passik SD. Issues in long-term opioid therapy: unmet needs, risks, and solutions. Mayo Clin Proc. 2009; 84(7): 593-601. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2704131/ Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Passik, SD. Random Access of PMPs. Emerging Solutions in Pain. 2009. Available at: http://emergingsolutionsinpain.com/ Accessed on: 2009-12-05.

Pawasauskas J, Stevens B, Youssef R, Kelley M. Predictors of naloxone use for respiratory depression and oversedation in hospitalized adults. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy. 2014; 71(9): 746-750. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24733138 Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

PCSS. XR-Naltrexone: A step-by-step guide. Provider’s Clinical Support System for Medicated Assisted Treatment. 2017. Available at: https://custom.cvent.com/10D3BAE39269457884C1D96DE1DF8D8D/files/b8f05ba83cfe4b859a8f5f72602878f0.pdf Accessed on: 2017-02-15.

Peppin JF, Passik SD, Couto JE, et al. Recommendations for urine drug monitoring as a component of opioid therapy in the treatment of chronic pain. Pain Medicine. 2012; June early e-publications: 1-11. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-4637.2012.01414.x/abstract Accessed on: 2012-06-18.

Pergolizzi J, Böger RH, Budd K, et al. Opioids and the management of chronic severe pain in the elderly: consensus statement of an International Expert Panel with focus on the six clinically most often used World Health Organization Step III opioids (buprenorphine, fentanyl, hydromorphone, methadone, morphine, oxycodone). Pain Pract. 2008; 8(4): 287-313. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18503626 Accessed on: 2013-09-16.

Pergolizzi J, et al. Towards a multidisciplinary team approach in chronic pain management . Change Pain . 2013. Available at: http://www.pae-eu.eu/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Multidisciplinary-approach-in-chronic-pain-management.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Physicians for Responsible Opioid Prescribing (PROP). Cautious Evidence Based Opioid Prescribing. Physicians for Responsible Opioid Prescribing. 2011. Available at: http://www.supportprop.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/PROP_OpioidPrescribing.pdf Accessed on: 2012-05-09.

Portenoy RK, Ahmed E. Principles of Opioid Use in Cancer Pain. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2014; 32(16): 1662-1670. Available at: http://jco.ascopubs.org/content/early/2014/05/05/JCO.2013.52.5188.abstract Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Pountos I, Georgouli T, Bird H, Giannoudis PV. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: Prostaglandins, indications, and side effects. International Journal of Interferon, Cytokine and Mediator Research. 2011; 3: 19-27. Available at: https://www.dovepress.com/nonsteroidal-anti-inflammatory-drugs-prostaglandins-indications-and-si-peer-reviewed-article-IJICMR Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Pritham UA, McKay L. Safe Management of Chronic Pain in Pregnancy in an Era of Opioid Misuse and Abuse. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing. 2014; 43(5): 554-567. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25123962 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Qaseem A, Wilt TJ, McLean RM, et al.. Noninvasive treatments for acute, subacute, and chronic low back pain: A clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. American College of Physicians. 2017. Available at: http://annals.org/aim/article/2603228/noninvasive-treatments-acute-subacute-chronic-low-back-pain-clinical-practice Accessed on: 2017-02-15.

Reinarman C, Nunberg H, Lanthier F, Heddleston T. Who are medical marijuana patients? Population characteristics from nine California assessment clinics. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 2011; 43 (2): 128-135. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Craig_Reinarman/publication/51587751_Who_Are_Medical_Marijuana_Patients_Population_Characteristics_from_Nine_California_Assessment_Clinics/links/5422fc330cf290c9e3ae246b.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-10.

Reisfield GM, Salazar E, Bertholf RL. Review: rational use and interpretation of urine drug testing in chronic opioid therapy. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 2007; 37(4): 301-314. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000286 Accessed on: 2013-09-16.

Richards JS, Kogos SC Jr, Ness TJ, Oleson CV. Effects of smoking on neuropathic pain in two people with spinal cord injury. Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine. 2005; 28(4): 330-332.

Risser A, Donovan D, Heintzman J, Page T. NSAID prescribing precautions. Am Fam Physician. 2009; 80(12): 1371-8. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2009/1215/p1371.html Accessed on: 2014-08-25.

Risser A, Donovan D, Heintzman J, Page T. NSAID prescribing precautions. American Family Physician. 2009; 80: 1371-1378. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2009/1215/p1371.html Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Roehrs TA, Harris E, Randall S, Roth T. Pain Sensitivity and Recovery From Mild Chronic Sleep Loss. Sleeep. 2012. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3490359/ Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Rosen CS, Ouimette PC, Sheikh JI, Gregg JA, Moos RH. Physical and sexual abuse history and addiction treatment outcomes. Journal Studies on Alcohol. 2002; 63: 683-687. Available at: http://www.jsad.com/doi/abs/10.15288/jsa.2002.63.683 Accessed on: 2015-04-02.

Rudd RA. Increases in Drug and Opioid-Involved Overdose Deaths — United States, 2010–2015. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2016; 65: . Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/wr/mm655051e1.htm Accessed on: 2016-12-20.

SAMHSA. Managing chronic pain in adults with or in recovery from substance use disorders . Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series, No. 54 . 2012. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92046/#_ch4_s15_ Accessed on: 2015-07-08.

SAMHSA. Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings. NSDUH Series H-46, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 13-4795. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2013. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUHresultsPDFWHTML2013/Web/NSDUHresults2013.pdf Accessed on: 2014-07-30.

SAMHSA. SAMHSA opioid overdose prevention toolkit. . 2014. Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//SMA14-4742/Overdose_Toolkit.pdf Accessed on: 2014-09-22.

SAMHSA. Use of buprenorphine in the pharmacologic management of opioid dependence . Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2001. Available at: http://www.buprenorphine.samhsa.gov/Buprenorphine_Curriculum.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Sansone RA, Sansone LA. Chronic pain syndromes and borderline personality. Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience. 2012; 9: 10-14. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3280073/ Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Saper JR, Lake AE. Continuous opioid therapy (COT) is rarely advisable for refractory chronic daily headache: Limited efficacy, risks, and proposed guidelines. Headache. 2008; 48(6): 838-49.

Savage SD, Kirsh KL, Passik, SD. Challenges in using opioids to treat pain in persons with substance use disorders. Addiction Science & Clinical Practice. 2008. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2797112/ Accessed on: 2009-11-16.

Savage SR. Management of Opioid Medications in Patients with Chronic Pain and Risk of Substance Abuse. Current Psychiatry Reports. 2009; 11: 377-384. Available at: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11920-009-0057-2 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Savage SR. Principles of Pain Treatment in Addictive Disorders. Presentation at the American Psychiatric Association Annual Meeting. 2004. Available at: http://archives.drugabuse.gov/meetings/apa/ppt/savage.pdf Accessed on: 2009-10-22.

Schafer, M. Guide to Pain Management in Low-Resource Settings, Chapter 7 Opioids in Pain Medicine. International Association for the Study of Pain. 2010. Available at: http://www.iasp-pain.org/files/Content/ContentFolders/Publications2/FreeBooks/Guide_to_Pain_Management_in_Low-Resource_Settings.pdfAccessed on: 2013-07-22.

Schechter Neil L. Pediatric Pain Management and Opioids: the baby and the bathwater. JAMA Pediatrics. 2014; 168(11): 987-988. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25200481 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Schnoll, Sidney H., Finch, James. Medical Education for Pain and Addiction: Making Progress Toward Answering a Need. The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics. 1994. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1748-720X.1994.tb01303.x/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Shah A, Hayes CJ, Martin BC, et al. Characteristics of initial prescription episodes and likelihood of long-term opioid use — United States, 2006–2015. MMWR. 2017; 66(10): 265-269. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/66/wr/mm6610a1.htm?s_cid=mm6610a1_w Accessed on: 2017-03-23.

Shi Y, Weingarten TN, Hooten WM, Maintilla CB, Warner DO. Smoking and pain: pathophysiology and clinical implications. Anesthesiology. 2010; 113(4): 977-992. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20864835 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Silverman SM.. Opioid induced hyperalgesia: Clinical implications for the pain practitioner. Pain Physician. 2009; 12(3): 679-694. Available at: http://www.painphysicianjournal.com/ Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Simeone R. Doctor shopping behavior and the persion of opioid analgesics: 2008-2012. IMS Government Solutions . 2014. Available at: http://www.pdmpassist.org/pdf/Opioid_persion_08142014.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Sinusas K. Osteoarthritis: Diagnosis and treatment. American Family Physician. 2012; 85: 49-56. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2012/0101/p49.html Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Solanki DR, Koyyalagunta D, Shah RV, Silverman S, Manchikanti L. Monitoring opioid adherence in chronic pain patients: Assessment of risk of substance misuse. Pain Physician. 2011; 14: E119-E131. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21412377 Accessed on: 2015-07-07.

Solomon DH, Furst DE, Romain PL. NSAIDs: Therapeutic use and variability of response in adults. UpToDate. 2015. Available at: http://www.uptodate.com/contents/nsaids-therapeutic-use-and-variability-of-response-in-adults Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Solomon DH, Furst DE, Romain PL. Patient information: Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) . UpToDate. 2014. Available at: http://www.uptodate.com/contents/nonsteroidal-antiinflammatory-drugs-nsaids-beyond-the-basics Accessed on: 2015-07-06.

Stagnitti MN. Trends in Prescribed Outpatient Opioid Use and Expenses in the U.S. Civilian Noninstitutionalized Population, 2002-2012. Statistical Brief. AHRQ. 2015. Available at: http://meps.ahrq.gov/mepsweb/data_files/publications/st478/stat478.shtml Accessed on: 2015-10-12.

Stein DJ, Ipser JC, Seedat S. Pharmacotherapy for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews . 2006; 1: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16437445 Accessed on: 2015-09-01.

Stephens RC. The Street Addict Role: A Theory of Heroin Addiction. Albany: State University of New York Press. 1991. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/dp/0791406202 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. OxyContin®: Prescription Drug Abuse. CSAT Advisory. 2001(b): 1(1). Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//SMA08-4138/SMA08-4138.pdf Accessed on: 2014-08-26.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Results from the 2008 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings. Office of Applied Studies, NSDUH Series H-36, HHS Publication No. SMA 09-4434. Rockville, MD. 2009.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary Care Clinicians. Rockville, Md: Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Treatment Improvement Protocol Series, No. 24. Publication (SMA) 02-3687. 1997. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64827/ Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies. The TEDS Report: Substance Abuse Treatment Admissions Involving Abuse of Pain Relievers: 1998 and 2008. Rockville, MD. 2010. Available at: http://oas.samhsa.gov/2k10/230/230PainRelvr2k10Web.pdf Accessed on: 2010-07-23.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. Rockville, Md: Center For Substance Abuse Treatment. Treatment Improvement Protocol Series, No. 40, USDHHS Publication (SMA) 04-3939. 2004. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64766/

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Advisory. Winter 2016; 15 (1): . Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//SMA16-4938/SMA16-4938.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-05.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Aministration. Opioid Overdose Toolkit. SAMHSA. . Available at: http://evzio.com/hcp/about-naloxone/samhsa-opioid-overdose-toolkit.php Accessed on: 2015-09-04.

Sullivan MD, Von Korff M, Banta-Green C, Merrill JO, Saunders K. Problems and concerns of patients receiving chronic opioid therapy for chronic non-cancer pain. Pain. 2010; 149: 345-353. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20334974 Accessed on: 2015-07-02.

Taylor R, Raffa RB , Pergolizzi JV. Opioid formulations with sequestered naltrexone: a perspective review . Ther Adv Drug Saf . 2014; 5(3): 129-137. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4110852/ Accessed on: 2015-07-07.

Tennant F. Using objective signs of severe pain to guide opioid prescribing. Pain Treatment Topics. 2008. Available at: http://www.thblack.com/links/RSD/Tennant-PainSigns-6p.pdf Accessed on: 2010-07-07.

The American Academy of Pain Medicine. The American Society of Addiction Medicine. Consensus document. The American Pain Society. 2001. Available at: http://opi.areastematicas.com/generalidades/definicionesopiaceos.AAPM.pdf

Timko C, DeBenedetti A. A randomized controlled trial of intensive referral to 12-step self-help groups: one-year outcomes. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007; 90(2-3): 270-9. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=A+randomized+controlled+trial+of+intensive+referral+to+12-step+self-help+groups%3A+one-year+outcomes Accessed on: 2013-09-13.

Trelle S, Reichenbach S, Wandel S, et al. Cardiovascular safety of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: network meta-analysis. BMJ. 2011; 342: c7086. Available at: http://www.bmj.com/content/342/bmj.c7086 Accessed on: 2016-02-03.

Trescot A, Glaser S, Hansen H, et al. Effectiveness of opioids in the treatment of chronic non-cancer pain. Pain Physician. 2008a; 11: S181-S200. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18443639 Accessed on: 2013-09-13.

Trescot A, Helm S, Hansen H, et al. Opioids in the management of chronic non-cancer pain: an update of American Society of the Interventional Pain Physicians’ (ASIPP) guidelines. Pain Physician. 2008b; 11: S5-S62.

Turk D, Gatchel R. Biopsychosocial perspective on chronic pain. Psychological approaches to pain management: A practitioner ‘s handbook. 2002. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17592957 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Turner JA, Saunders K, Shortreed SM, et al. Chronic Opioid Therapy Urine Drug Testing in Primary Care: Prevalence and Predictors of Aberrant Results. J Gen Intern Med. 2014; 29(12): 1663-1671. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25217208 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

U.S. Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration. Dispensing Controlled Substances for the Treatment of Pain. Federal Register Notices. 2006; 71(172): 52715-52723. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/fed_regs/notices/2006/fr09062.htm Accessed on: 2009-12-04.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Ultram (tramadol hydrochloride), Ultracet (tramadol hydrochloride/acetaminophen): Label Change. MedWatch: The FDA Safety Information and Adverse Event Reporting Program: Safety Information. 2010; Safety Alerts for Human Medical Products: . Available at: http://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/SafetyAlertsforHumanMedicalProducts/ucm213264.htm Accessed on: 2014-08-01.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Final Recommendation Statement – Depression in Adults: Screening. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Website. 2016. Available at: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/RecommendationStatementFinal/depression-in-adults-screening1 Accessed on: 2016-02-02.

United States Department of Health and Human Services. Social determinants of health. Healthy People 2020. 2014. Available at: http://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/topics-objectives/topic/social-determinants-health Accessed on: 2015-07-02.

United States Department of Labor. Counselors. Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010-11 Edition. 2009. Available at: http://www.bls.gov/ooh/Community-and-Social-Service/School-and-career-counselors.htm Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

United States Department of Labor. Occupational Outlook Handbook: Physical Therapists. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2009. Available at: http://www.bls.gov/ooh/Healthcare/Physical-therapists.htm Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

US Department of Health and Human Services, SAMHSA. National Estimates of Drug-Related Emergency Department Visits. Drug Abuse Warning Network, 2011. 2013. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/DAWN2k11ED/DAWN2k11ED/DAWN2k11ED.pdf Accessed on: 2014-10-31.

USDHHS. Facing Addiction in America. The Surgeon General’s Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health. Surgeon General Reports. 2016. Available at: https://addiction.surgeongeneral.gov/ Accessed on: 2016-11-17.

VA/DoD. Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain. VA/DoD. 2010. Available at: http://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/Pain/cot/COT_312_Full-er.pdf Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

VA/DoD. Tapering and Discontinuing Opioids. 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain. 2010. Available at: http://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/Pain/cot/OpioidTaperingFactSheet23May2013v1.pdf Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

VA/DoD. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain. VA/DoC. 2003. Available at: http://www.ihs.gov/nc4/index.cfmAccessed on: 2009-12-01.

VAHPC. Risk evaluation & mitigation tool-kit: strategies to promote the safe use of opioids. Virginia Association for Hospices and Palliative Care (VAHPC) . 2012. Available at: http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/www.virginiahospices.org/resource/resmgr/imported/Final%20Tool%20Kit%20Merged%20Document%20for%20electronic%20distribution.pdf Accessed on: 2015-07-07.

van Ojik AL, Jansen PAF, Brouwers J, et al. Treatment of Chronic Pain in Older People. Drugs & Aging. 2012; 29(8): 615-625. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22765848 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

van Tulder M, Ostelo R, Vlaeyen J, Linton S, Morley S, Assendelft W. Behavioral treatment for chronic low back pain: A systematic review within the framework of the Cochrane Back Review Group. Spine. 2000; 25: 2688-2699. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11034658 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Vicol M. Confidentiality Laws. Mental Health Practitioner’s Guide to HIV/AIDS. 2013. Available at: http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4614-5283-6_23#page-1 Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Vissers KCP, Besse K, Hans G, Devulder J, Morlion B. Opioid Rotation in the Management of Chronic Pain: Where Is the Evidence?. Pain Practice. 2010; 10(2): 85-93. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1533-2500.2009.00335.x/pdf

Vitiello MV, McCurry SM, Shortreed SM, et al. Cognitive-behavioral treatment for comorbid insomnia and osteoarthritis pain in primary care: the lifestyles randomized controlled trial. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013; 61(6): 947-56. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23711168 Accessed on: 2014-04-29.

Vowles KE, McCracken LM. Acceptance and values-based action in chronic pain: A study of treatment effectiveness and process. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2008; 76: 397-407. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18540733 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Vowles KE, McEntee ML, Julnes PS, et al. Rates of opioid misuse, abuse, and addiction in chronic pain: a systematic review and data synthesis. Pain. 2015; 156(4): 569-576. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25785523 Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Waknine Y. FDA Approves 7-Day Buprenorphine Pain Patch. Medscape Today. 2010. Available at: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/724626 Accessed on: 2015-07-02.

Walker MJ, Webster LR. Risk factors for drug persion in a pain clinic patient population . Journal of Opioid Management . 2012; 8(6): 351-62. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23264313 Accessed on: 2015-07-07.

Walsh S. FDA approves new hand-held auto-injector to reverse opioid overdose: First naloxone treatment specifically designed to be given by a family members or caregivers. FDA.gov. 2014. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm391465.htm Accessed on: 2015-09-04.

Ware MA, Wang T, Shapiro S, et al.. Cannabis for the management of pain: Assessment of safety study . J Pain. . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26385201 Accessed on: 2016-03-09.

Warner EA. Opioids for the Treatment of Chronic Noncancer Pain. The American Journal of Medicine. 2012; 125(12): 1155-1161. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18443640 Accessed on: 2015-06-30.

Warner M, Chen LH, Makuc DM. Increase in fatal poisonings involving opioid analgesics in the United States, 1999-2006. NCHS Data Brief, no. 22. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2009. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db22.pdf Accessed on: 2010-03-05.

Washington State Department of Health. Washington State Department of Health: Pain Management. Washington State Department of Health. 2010. Available at: http://www.doh.wa.gov/ForPublicHealthandHealthcareProviders/HealthcareProfessionsandFacilities/PainManagement Accessed on: 2013-07-30.

Weaver MF and Schnoll SH. Opioid Treatment of Chronic Pain in Patients with Addiction. Journal of Pain & Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy. 2002; 16(3): 2-26. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14640352 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

WebMD. Acupuncture for Arthritis. www.webmd.com. 2007. Available at: http://www.webmd.com/rheumatoid-arthritis/guide/arthritis-acupuncture?page=2Accessed on: 2010-07-20.

WebMD. Migraines & Headaches Health Center. WebMD. 2012. Available at: http://www.webmd.com/migraines-headaches/guide/default.htm Accessed on: 2012-11-28.

WebMD. Physical Therapy for Chronic Pain. WebMD’s online Pain Management Health Center. 2016. Available at: http://www.webmd.com/pain-management/physical-therapy Accessed on: 2016-12-28.

Webster L. Communication and risk strategies for inpidualized treatment plans. http://www.emergingsolutionsinpain.com. 2009. Available at: http://emergingsolutionsinpain.com/index.php?option=com_continued&view=material&Itemid=283&course=35&token=cdb4cce343d371c69ab43d4ba0394b94Accessed on: 2010-05-19.

Webster LR, Dave B. Avoiding opioid abuse while managing pain. A guide for practitioners. North Branch, MN: Sunrise River Press. 2007. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/dp/0962481483 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Webster LR, Fine PG. Overdose deaths demand a new paradigm for opioid rotation. Pain Med. 2012; 13(4): 571-4. Available at: http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/ama/downloads/130328_Overdose_deaths_demand_a_new_paradigm_for_opioid_rotation_Copy.pdf

Webster LR, Webster RM. Predicting aberrant behaviors in opioid-treated patients: Preliminary validation of the Opioid Risk Tool. Pain Medicine. 2005; 6(6): 432-442. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16336480 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Webster LR. Methadone side effects: Constipation, respiratory depression, sedation, sleep-disordered breathing, and the endocrine system. Handbook of Methadone Prescribing and Buprenorphine Therapy. 2013. Available at: http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-6974-2_4 Accessed on: 2015-07-02.

Webster LR. Methadone-related deaths. Pain Med. 2011; 1(4): 211-7. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21668754 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Webster, L. Misuse. Emerging Solutions in Pain. Knowledge Library. 2010. Available at: http://emergingsolutionsinpain.com/

Weingarten, TN, Shi, Y, Mantilla, CB, Hooten, WM, Warner, DO. Smoking and chronic pain: A real-but-puzzling relationship. Minnesota Medicine. 2011; March: . Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21485923 Accessed on: 2011-03-03.

Weissman DE, Haddox JD. Opioid pseudoaddiction—An iatrogenic syndrome. J Pain. 1989; 36(3): 363-366. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2710565 Accessed on: 2013-09-16.

Wiedemer NL, Harden PS, Arndt IO, Gallagher RM. The Opioid Renewal Clinic: A primary care, managed approach to opioid therapy in chronic pain patients at risk for substance abuse. Pain Medicine. 2007; 8(7): 573-584. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-4637.2006.00254.x/abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Wolff JL, Roter DL. Family presence in routine medical visits: A meta-analytical review. Social Science & Medicine. 2011; 72: 823-831. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3070824/ Accessed on: 2015-07-01.

Workman E & Hendrix J. Anxiety and depression in a psychiatrically informed pain medicine practice. CMP Media LLC. 2007. Available at: http://pro.psychcentral.com/anxiety-and-depression-in-a-psychiatrically-informed-pain-medicine-practice/00562.html Accessed on: 2014-08-21.

World Health Organization (WHO). WHO’s pain relief ladder. World Health Organization: Programmes and projects: Cancer. 2010. Available at: http://www.who.int/cancer/palliative/painladder/en/ Accessed on: 2010-05-25.

Wu SM, Compton P, Bolus R, et al. The Addiction Behaviors Checklist: validation of a new clinician-based measure of inappropriate opioid use in chronic pain. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2006; 32: 342-351. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885392406004416 Accessed on: 2013-09-12.

Zacharoff, KL, Pujol LM, Corsini E. Managing Chronic Pain With Opioids in Primary Care. The PainEDU.org Manual. 2010; 2nd ed: . Available at: http://www.bookwire.com/book/USA/Managing-Chronic-Pain-with-Opioids-in-Primary-Care-9780982529805-Zacharoff-Kevin-L-28531238 Accessed on: 2012-05-21.

Ziegler PP. Addiction and the Treatment of Pain. Substance Use and Misuse. 2005; 40(1): 1945-1954. Available at: http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10826080500294841 Accessed on: 2013-10-23.

Agerwala SM, McCance-Katz EF. Integrating screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) into clinical practice settings: A brief review. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 2012; 44: 307-317. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3801194/ Accessed on: 2017-07-26.

Alberta Health Services . Brief Tobacco Intervention: Ready 2 Quit . YouTube . 2012. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z4B74E_8ncc Accessed on: 2015-04-27.

American Academy of Family Physicians. HCPCS, CPT, & ICD-9 Codes Related to Tobacco Cessation Counseling. AAFP.org. 2011. Available at: http://www.integration.samhsa.gov/images/res/Coding-list.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-28.

American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). Alcohol use by youth and adolescents: a pediatric concern. Pediatrics. 2010; 125(5): 1078-1087. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/YouthGuide/YouthGuide.pdf Accessed on: 2010-10-29.

American Academy of Pediatrics. Policy statement. Substance use screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment for pediatricians. Pediatrics. 2011; 128(5): e1330-e1340. Available at: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/128/5/e1330.full Accessed on: 2011-12-13.

American Psychiatric Association. Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders. APA. 2013. Available at: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=8&sqi=2&ved=0ahUKEwiQpMKqjPPUAhWCbD4KHXHHDFkQFggxMAI&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychiatry.org%2FFile%2520Library%2FPsychiatrists%2FPractice%2FDSM%2FAPA_DSM-5-Substance-Use-Disorder.pdf&usg=AFQjCNHWoKLjpxTdYDFkTbjWM1h9dqOKNwAccessed on: 2013-06-26.

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Use of Medications in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use. . June 1, 2015. Available at: https://www.asam.org/quality-practice/guidelines-and-consensus-documents/npg Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

Azari S, Lum P, Ratanawongsa N, et al. A Skills-Based Curriculum for Teaching Motivational Interviewing-Enhanced Screening, Brief Intervention, and Referral to Treatment (SBIRT) to Medical Residents. MedEdPORTAL Publications. 2015. Available at: https://www.mededportal.org/publication/10080 Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Babor T, Higgins-Biddle JC, Saunders JB, Monteiro MG. AUDIT: The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: guidelines for use in primary care. World Health Organization: Department of Mental Health and Substance Dependence. Second Edition. 2001. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_MSD_MSB_01.6a.pdf Accessed on: 2008-10-10.

Babor TF, Higgins-Biddle JC. Brief Intervention for Hazardous and Harmful Drinking: A Manual for Use in Primary Care . World Health Organization. 2001. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/who_msd_msb_01.6b.pdf

Blow FC, Brower KJ, Schulenberg JE, Demo-Dananberg LM, Young JP, Beresford TP. The Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test – Geriatric Version (MAST-G): a new elderly-specific screening instrument. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 1992; 16(2): 372. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK99192/

BoiseCoE. Motivational Interviewing — OARS Skills. BoiseCoE. 2012. Available at: https://youtu.be/_KNIPGV7Xyg Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

Brown RL, Leonard T, Saunders LA, Papasouliotis O. The prevalence and detection of substance use disorder among inpatients ages 18 to 49: an opportunity for prevention. Preventive Medicine. 1998; 27(1): 101-110. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9465360 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Brown RL, Rounds LA. Conjoint screening questionnaires for alcohol and other drug abuse: criterion validity in a primary care practice. Wis Med J. 1995; 94(3): 135-40. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7778330 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Bush K, Kivlahan DR, McDonnell MB, et al.. The AUDIT Alcohol Consumption Questions (AUDIT-C): An effective brief screening test for problem drinking. Arch Internal Med. 1998; 3: 1789-1795. Available at: http://www.integration.samhsa.gov/images/res/tool_auditc.pdf Accessed on: 2015-09-25.

Butler C, Rollnick S, Cohen D, Russell I, Stott N. Motivational counseling versus brief advice for smokers in general practice: a randomized trial. BR J Gen Pract. 1999; 49: 611-616. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1316198/ Accessed on: 2013-10-25.

Carey KB. Substance use reduction in the context of outpatient psychiatric treatment: a collaborative, motivational, harm reduction approach. Community Mental Health Journal. 1996; 32: 291-306. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8790970 Accessed on: 2013-10-28.

Carlisle J, Shickle D, Cork M, McDonagh A. Concerns over confidentiality may deter adolescents from consulting their doctors. A qualitative exploration.. Journal of Medical Ethics. 2006; 32(3): 301-315. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2564464/ Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. Behavioral health trends in the United States: Results from the 2014 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. HHS Publication. 2015; SMA 15-4927, NSDUH Series H-50: . Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-FRR1-2014/NSDUH-FRR1-2014.htm

Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Secondhand Smoke Fact Sheet. CDC Website. 2010. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/secondhand_smoke/general_facts/index.htm Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (CSAT), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). TIP 24: A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary Care Clinicians. Rockville, MD. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 1997. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64827/ Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary Care Clinicians: TIP 24. Rockville, MD. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 1997. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64827/ Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Tobacco Use: Targeting the Nation’s Leading Killer. CDC Website. 2011. Available at: http://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/5527/

Chang G. Alcohol Screening Instruments for Pregnant Women. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). 2001; 25(3): 204-9. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh25-3/204-209.pdf Accessed on: 2011-01-10.

Clemens KJ, Vendruscolo LF. Anxious to Drink: Gabapentin Normalizes GABAergic Transmission in the Central Amygdala and Reduces Symptoms of Ethanol Dependence. The Journal of Neuroscience. 2008; 28: 9087-9089. Available at: http://www.jneurosci.org/content/28/37/9087.long Accessed on: 2013-11-05.

Clinical Tools Inc.. AUDIT Screening Tool. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2015. Available at: https://youtu.be/Xdsz__MaC1g Accessed on: 2015-09-25.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. CAGE Screening Tool. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2015. Available at: https://youtu.be/0mOg2rcCbjM Accessed on: 2015-08-20.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Diagnosing Alcohol Use Disorder. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/zGuiEbaAk3g Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Motivational Interviewing. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/4_q9WPTnO4k Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Motivational Interviewing: Managing Challenging Patient Behavior. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/4_q9WPTnO4k Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Video: Case: Mr. Rennie CAGE Interview. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2011. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MDAay15544U Accessed on: 2011-04-11.

Community Care of North Carolina. CCNC Motivational Interviewing Resource Guide. . 2013. Available at: https://www.communitycarenc.org/media/files/mi-guide.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-11.

Compton P. Urine toxicology screening: a case study. Emerging Solutions in Pain. 2009.

Copeland L, McNamara R, Kelson M, et al. Mechanisms of change within motivational interviewing in relation to health behaviors outcomes: A systematic review. Patient Educ Couns. 2015; 98(4): 401-11. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25535015 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.

D’Amico EJ, Paddock SM, Burnam A, Kung FY. Identification of and guidance for problem drinking by general medical providers: results from a national survey. Medical Care. 2005; 43(3): 229-236. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15725979 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Degenhardt L , Bucello C , Mathers B. Mortality among regular or dependent users of heroin and other opioids: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Addiction . 2011; 106: 32-51. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03140.x/abstract Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Defense. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders Stabilization Pocket Card . VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders. 2015. Available at: http://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/MH/sud/VADoDSUDCPGPocketCardStabilizationFinal.pdf Accessed on: 2017-02-21.

Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Defense. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders Screening and Treatment Pocket Card. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders. 2015. Available at: http://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/MH/sud/VADoDSUDCPGPocketcardScreeningandTreatmentRevised12716.pdf Accessed on: 2017-02-21.

Detecting alcoholism: the CAGE questionnaire. JAMA. 1984; 252: 1905-1907.

Devine EG, Brief DJ, Horton GE, LoCastro JS. Comprehensive Addiction Treatment: A cognitive-behavioral approach to treating substance use disorders. LULU Press. 2010; 4: . Available at: http://www.mass.gov/eohhs/gov/departments/dph/programs/substance-abuse/prevention/screening-brief-intervention-and-referral-to.htmlAccessed on: 2015-06-11.

DiLillo V , West DS. Motivational interviewing for weight loss . Psychiatric Clinics of North America . 2011; 34: 861-869. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22098809 Accessed on: 2015-05-27.

E Papastavrou , A Farmakas, G Karayiannis, E Kotrotsiou. Co morbidity of Post-Traumatic-Stress Disorders and Substance Use Disorder. Health Science Journal. 2011; 5(2): 107-17. Available at: http://www.hsj.gr/medicine/co-morbidity-of-posttraumaticstress-disorders-and-substance-use-disorder.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Eke PI, Dye BA, Wei L, Thornton-Evans GO, Genco RJ. Prevalence of Periodontitis in Adults in the United States: 2009 and 2010. Journal of Dental Research. 2012; 91: 914-20. Available at: http://jdr.sagepub.com/content/91/10/914 Accessed on: 2014-12-16.

Emmons K, Rollnick S. Motivational interviewing in health care settings: Opportunities and limitations. Am J Prev Med. 2001; 20(1): 68-74. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11137778 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Emmons KM, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing in Health Care Settings: Opportunities and Limitations. American journal of preventive medicine. 2001; 20.1: 68-74. Available at: https://meded.duke.edu/practice/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Emmons-MI-article1.pdf Accessed on: 2014-07-17.

Engle B. Motivational Interview with “Resistant” Heavy Drinker. . 2012. Available at: https://youtu.be/eNfy-FVvnRs Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

Feld A. The health insurance portability and accountability act (HIPAA): its broad effect on practice. . American Journal of Gastroenterology.. 2005; 100(7): 1440-1443. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15984962 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Fiore MC, Jaen CR, Baker TB, et al. Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence: 2008 Update. Clinical Practice Guideline. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. May 2008. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK63952/ Accessed on: 2013-09-26.

Food and Drug Administration. Campral (acamprosate calcium) Label. FDA Website. July 30, 2004a. Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/Scripts/cder/DrugsatFDA/index.cfm Accessed on: 2010-10-29.

Gialamas A, St John A, Laurence CO, Bubner TK, PoCT Management Committee. Point-of-care testing for patients with diabetes, hyperlipidaemia or coagulation disorders in the general practice setting: a systematic review. Fam Pract. 2010; Feb 27(1): 17-24. Available at: https://fampra.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/1/17.long Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Glynn LH, Moyers TB. Chasing change talk: the clinician’s role in evoking client language about change. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2010; 39(1): 65-70. Available at: http://www.journalofsubstanceabusetreatment.com/article/S0740-5472(10)00073-5/abstract Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

Glynn TJ, Manley MW. How to help your patients stop smoking- a National Cancer Institute manual for physicians. Smoking and Tobacco Control Program, National Cancer Institute, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health. Bethesda, MD. 1998. Available at: http://books.google.com/books/about/How_to_help_your_patients_stop_smoking.html?id=TM1pAAAAMAAJ

Grana R, Benowitz N, Glantz SA. E-cigarettes: A scientific review. Contemporary Reviews in Cardiovascular Medicine. 2014; 129: 1972-1986. Available at: http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/129/19/1972.full Accessed on: 2015-06-15.

Heumann D. Alcoholic hepatitis clinical presentation. Medscape Drugs and Diseases. 2014. Available at: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/170539-clinicalAccessed on: 2015-07-27.

Hicks M, Tough SC, Johnston D , et al. T-ACE and predictors of self-reported alcohol use during pregnancy in a large, population-based urban cohort . International Journal of Alcohol and Drug Research . 2014; 3 (1): 51-61. Accessed on: 2015-07-24.

IBHP. Warm hand-off referrals by the primary care provider to the behavioralist . California Metal Health Services Authority . 2007. Available at: https://www.ibhp.org/?section=pages&cid=122 Accessed on: 2015-06-11.

Ingersoll KS, Wagner CC, Gharib S. Motivational groups for community substance abuse problems. Mid-Atlantic Addiction Technology Transfer Center, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 2000. Available at: http://people.uncw.edu/ogler/MI%20Groups%20for%20Com%20SA%20Prog.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Crossing The Quality Chasm: A New Health System For The 21st Century. IOM. 2001. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/read/10027/chapter/1 Accessed on: 2015-07-15.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Improving the Quality of Health Care for Mental and Substance-Use Conditions: Quality Chasm Series. Institute of Medicine. Board on Healthcare Services. 2006. Available at: https://www.nap.edu/read/11470/chapter/1 Accessed on: 2010-07-06.

Isaacson JH, Butler R, Zacharek M, Tzelepis A. Screening with the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) in an Inner-city Population. Journal of Gen Int Med. 1994; 9: 550-553. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7823225 Accessed on: 2015-06-01.

Ismene L. Petrakis, et al. . Comorbidity of alcoholism and psychiatric disorders. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism . 2002. Available at: http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh26-2/81-89.htm Accessed on: 2016-02-09.

Jensen CD, Cushing CC, Aylward BS, Craig JT, Sorell DM, Steele RG. Effectiveness of motivational interviewing interventions for adolescent substance use behavior change: A meta-analytic review. J of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2011; 79(4): 443-40. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21728400 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Johnson BA, Ait-Daoud N. Topiramate in the new generation of drugs: efficacy in the treatment of alcoholic patients. Curr Pharm Des. 2010; 16(19): 2103-2112. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20482511

Jørgensen CH. The efficacy of disulfiram for the treatment of alcohol use disorder. Alcohol Clin Exp Res.. 2011; 35: 10. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21615426 Accessed on: 2013-11-05.

Kaner EF, Dickinson HO, Beyer FR, et al. Effectiveness of brief alcohol interventions in primary care populations. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.. 2009; 4: . Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17443541 Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Kessler RC. The epidemiology of dual diagnosis. Biological Psychiatry. 2004; 56(10): 730–737. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15556117Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Kleber HD, Weiss RD, Anton RF, et al. Treatment of patients with substance use disorders, second edition. American Psychiatic Association. Am J Psychiatry. 2006; 163(8 Suppl): 5-82. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16981488 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Knight JR, Sherritt L, Harris SK, Gates EC, Chang G. Validity of brief alcohol screening tests among adolescents: a comparison of the AUDIT, POSIT, CAGE, and CRAFFT. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2003; 27(1): 67-73.

Knight JR, Shrier LA, Bravender TD, Farrell M, Vander Bilt J, Shaffer HJ. A new brief screen for adolescent substance abuse. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine. 1999; 153(6): 591-596. Available at: http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/347094 Accessed on: 2010-08-25.

Laudet AB. Substance abuse treatment providers’ referral to self-help: Review and future empirical directions. Int J Self Help Self Care. 2000; 1(3): 213-225. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2112772/ Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Legal Information Institute. 42 CFR Part 2 – Confidentiality of alcohol and drug abuse patient records. Cornell University Law School. 2003. Available at: https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/42/part-2 Accessed on: 2015-06-18.

Legal Information Institute. 42 U.S. Code § 290dd–2 – Confidentiality of records. Cornell University Law School. 2003. Available at: https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/290dd-2 Accessed on: 2015-06-18.

Lundal B, Moleni T, Burke B L, et al. Motivational Interviewing in Medical Care Settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis randomized controlled trials. Patient Education and Counseling. 2013; 93(2): 157-68. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24001658 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.

Lussier, M, Richard C. The motivational interview: In practice. Canadian Family Physician. 2007; 53: 2117-2118. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2231547/ Accessed on: 2015-06-17.

Lyme A. Motivational Interviewing – Good Example. TheIRETAchannel. 2013. Available at: https://youtu.be/67I6g1I7Zao Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

Madras BK, Compton WM, Avula D, et al. Screening, brief interventions, referral to treatment (SBIRT) for illicit drug and alcohol use at multiple healthcare sites. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 99: 280-295. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2760304/ Accessed on: 2011-03-24.

Marlatt GA. Harm Reduction: come as you are. Addict Behav. 1996; 21: 779-88. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8904943 Accessed on: 2013-10-25.

Mee-Lee D (ed). The ASAM Criteria . . 2013; 3rd edition: . Available at: https://www.asam.org/publications/the-asam-criteria Accessed on: 2014-09-12.

Meneses-Gaya C, Zuardi AW, Loureiro SR, et al. Is the Full Version of the AUDIT Really Necessary? Study of the Validity and Internal Construct of Its Abbreviated Versions. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 2010; 34: 1417-1424. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20491736 Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Miller W. Motivational interviewing with problem drinkers. Behav Psych. 1983; 11: 147-172. Available at: https://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=5845668 Accessed on: 2013-10-25.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. Applications of Motivational Interviewing Series. New York: Guilford Press.. 2012; 3rd edition: . Available at: https://www.guilford.com/books/Motivational-Interviewing/Miller-Rollnick/9781609182274 Accessed on: 2014-07-08.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. The Guilford Press. 2013. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Motivational-Interviewing-Third-Edition-Applications/dp/1609182278 Accessed on: 2014-10-10.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational interviewing: preparing people to change addictive behavior.. New York, NY; Guilford Press. 1991. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Motivational-Interviewing-Preparing-Addictive-Behavior/dp/089862469X Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Monto A, Currie S, Wright TL. Liver disease in injection drug users with hepatitis C, with and without HIV coinfection. J Addict Dis. 2008; 27(2): 49-59. Available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J069v27n02_06?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dpubmed#.Ula6dplDvmcAccessed on: 2013-10-10.

Moyers TB. The Relationship in Motivational Learning. Psychotherapy (Chic). 2014; 51(3): 358-63. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25068193Accessed on: 2015-09-29.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). Assessing Alcohol Problems: A guide for clinicians and researchers. NIH Publication No. 03–3745. 2003. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/AssessingAlcohol/index.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). Helping Patients Who Drink Too Much: A Clinician’s Guide, Updated 2005 Edition. Bethesda, MD. 2007. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/CliniciansGuide2005/guide.pdf Accessed on: 2010-10-28.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). Helping Patients Who Drink Too Much: A Clinician’s Guide. Bethesda, Md. 2005 (Updated 2007). Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/CliniciansGuide2005/guide.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Alcohol Alert No. 56: Screening for Alcohol Use Problems — An Update. NIAAA Website. 2002a. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa56.htm Accessed on: 2008-10-10.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Linked Epidemics: Drug Abuse and HIV/AIDS. Topics in Brief. 2005. Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/hivaids-drug-abuse-intertwined-epidemics Accessed on: 2011-04-16.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Principles of Drug Addiction Treatment: A Research-Based Guide. Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse. 2012; December: . Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/principles-drug-addiction-treatment-research-based-guide-third-edition/evidence-based-approaches-to-drug-addiction-treatment Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. The NIDA-Modified ASSIST. NIDA. 2010. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/resource-guide-screening-drug-use-in-general-medical-settings/nida-quick-screen Accessed on: 2011-04-08.

National Institutes of Health. NIH-funded study finds that gabapentin may treat alcohol dependence. National Institutes of Health. 2013. Available at: https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/nih-funded-study-finds-gabapentin-may-treat-alcohol-dependence Accessed on: 2013-11-05.

Newcombe DA, Humeniuk RE, Ali R. Validation of the World Health Organization Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST): report of results from the Australian site.. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2005; 24: 217-226. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16096125 Accessed on: 2015-06-01.

NIAAA. Alcohol Facts and Statistics. NIAAA. 2015. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/AlcoholFacts&Stats/AlcoholFacts&Stats.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-29.

NIAAA. Alcohol’s Effects on the Body. NIAAA. 2015. Available at: http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/alcohols-effects-body Accessed on: 2015-04-29.

NIAAA. Beyond hangovers. NIAAA Publications. 2010b. Available at: http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Hangovers/beyondHangovers.htm#chapter03 Accessed on: 2015-07-27.

NIDA. The NIDA Quick Screen. Screening for Drug Use in General Medical Settings Resource Guide. 2012. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/resource-guide-screening-drug-use-in-general-medical-settings/nida-quick-screen Accessed on: 2013-12-18.

O’Malley AS, Reschovsky JD. Referral and consultation communication between primary care and specialist physicians: finding common ground.. Arch Intern Med. 2011; 171(1): 56-65. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21220662 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Office of National Drug Control Policy. Medication Assisted Treatment for Opioid Addiction. Healthcare Brief ONDCP. 2012. Available at: https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/ondcp/recovery/medication_assisted_treatment_9-21-20121.pdf Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

Pilowsky DJ, Wu L. Screening for alcohol and drug use disorders among adults in primary care: a review. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2012; 3: 25-34. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22553426 Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Pilowsky DJ, Wu LT. Screening for alcohol and drug use disorders among adults in primary care: a review. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2012; 3: 25-34. Available at: https://www.dovepress.com/screening-for-alcohol-and-drug-use-disorders-among-adults-in-primary-c-peer-reviewed-article-SAR Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

Pirlott AG, Kisbu-Sakarya Y, Defrancesco CA, et al. Mechanisms of Motivational Interviewing in Health Promotion: A Bayesian mediation analysis. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2012; 9(1): 69. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22681874 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.

Prochaska JO, DiClemente CC. Transtheoretical therapy: toward a more integrative model of change. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice. 1982; 19: 276-288. Available at: http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/pst/19/3/276/ Accessed on: 2013-10-25.

Prochaska JO, Velicer WF. The transtheoretical model of health behavior change. American Journal of Health Promotion. 1997; 12: 38-48. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10170434 Accessed on: 2013-10-25.

Rahm AK, Boggs JM , Martin C, et al.. Facilitators and barriers to implementing SBIRT in primary care in integrated health care settings . Subst Abus. 2014. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25127073 Accessed on: 2015-05-27.

Roche AM, Freeman T. Brief interventions: good in theory but weak in practice. Drug and Alcohol Review. 2004; 23(1): 11-18. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14965883 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Rollnick S, Butler CC, Stott N. Helping smokers make decisions: the enhancement of brief interventions for general medical practice. Patient Educ Couns. 1997; 31: 191-203. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9277242 Accessed on: 2013-10-25.

Rollnick S, Mason P, Butler C. Health behavior change: a guide for practitioners. Churchill Livingstone. 2003. Available at: https://books.google.com/books?id=iWjZQAAACAAJ&lr= Accessed on: 2013-10-25.

Rollnick S, Miller WR. What is motivational interviewing?. Behav Cognitive Psychother. 1995; 23: 325-334. Available at: http://www.motivationalinterview.net/clinical/whatismi.html Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Rosengren D, Wagner CC. Motivational interviewing: shall we dance? . In: Coombs R, ed. Addiction Recovery Tools: A Practitioner’s Handbook. Sage Publications. 2001. Available at: https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/addiction-recovery-tools/book9537 Accessed on: 2015-11-11.

Rounsaville BJ. Using motivational interviewing in routine care. Paper presented at: National Institute on Drug Abuse Conference–Blending Clinical Practice and Research. March 14, 2002. Available at: http://archives.drugabuse.gov/pdf/blending/Rounsaville.pdf Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Rubio G, Jiménez-Arriero MA, Martínez I, Ponce G, Palomo T. Efficacy of physician-delivered brief counseling intervention for binge drinkers. Department of Psychiatry, Complutense University of Madrid, Hospital 12 de Octubre, Madrid, Spain, Am J Med. 2010; 123(1): 72-8. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20102995 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

SAMHSA Partners for Recovery. Pathways to Healing and Recovery: Perspectives from Inpiduals with Histories of Alcohol and Other Drug Problems. . 2010. Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/recovery_pathways_report.pdf Accessed on: 2016-04-27.

SAMHSA. Coding for SBI Reimbursement . SAMHSA. 2008. Available at: http://www.integration.samhsa.gov/clinical-practice/sbirt/Detailed_information_about_coding_for_SBI_reimbursement.pdf Accessed on: 2011-11-01.

SAMHSA. Medication and Counseling Treatment. Medication Assisted Treatment. 2015; 9/28/15: . Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/treatment#medications-used-in-mat Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

SAMHSA. Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings. NSDUH Series H-46, HHS . 2013. Available at: http://archive.samhsa.gov/data/NSDUH/2012SummNatFindDetTables/NationalFindings/NSDUHresults2012.pdf Accessed on: 2014-11-26.

Saunders JB, Aasland OG, Babor TF. Development of the alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT): WHO collaborative project on early detection of persons with harmful alcohol consumption —II. Addiction. 1993; 88(6): 791-803. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8329970

Schoener EP, Hopper JA, Pierre JD. Injection drug use in North America. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2002; 16(3): 535-551. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12371114 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Siu AL, U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Behavioral counseling and pharmacotherapy interventions for tobacco cessation in adults, including pregnant women: A review of reviews for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2015. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26389730 Accessed on: 2016-02-09.

Skinner HA. The drug abuse screening test. Addiction Behavior. 1982; 7(4): 363-71. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7183189 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Smith PC, Schmidt SM, Allensworth-Davies D, Saitz R. Primary care validation of a single question alcohol screening test. J Gen Intern Med. 2009; 25(4): 375. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2695521/ Accessed on: 2017-03-09.

Smith PC, Schmidt SM, Saitz R. A single-question screening test for drug use in primary care. Annals Intern Med. 2010; 170(13): 1155-1160. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2911954/ Accessed on: 2014-09-10.

Smyth A, Teo KK, Rangarajan S, O’Donnell M, Zhang M, Rana P, Leong DP, Dagenais G, Seron P, Rosengren A, Schutte AE, Lopez-Jaramillo P, Oguz A, Chifamba J, Diaz R, Lear S, Avezum A, Kumar R, Mohan V, Szuba A, Wei L, Yang W, Jian B, McKee M, Yusuf S. Alcohol Consumption and Cardiovascular Disease, Cancer, Injury, Admission to Hospital, and Mortality: A Prospective Cohort Study. The Lancet. 2015. Available at: http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(15)00235-4/references Accessed on: 2015-09-28.

Sobell, Sobell. Motivational interviewing strategies and techniques: Rationales and examples. Nova Southeastern University. 2008. Available at: http://www.nova.edu/gsc/forms/mi_rationale_techniques.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Stern TA, Gross AF, Stern TW, et al. Current approaches to the recognition and treatment of alcohol withdrawal and delirium tremens: “old wine in new bottles” or “new wine in old bottles”. Primary Care Companion to The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2010; 12(3): . Available at: http://www.psychiatrist.com/PCC/article/Pages/2010/v12n03/10r00991ecr.aspx Accessed on: 2017-03-16.

Storie M. SBIRT Brief Intervention for Preparation Stage, High Risk Client. Colorado SBIRT. Youtube. 2011. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SfFF7jcm3tA Accessed on: 2015-05-19.

Storie Misti. SBIRT AUDIT Screening. SBIRT Colorado. Youtube. 2011. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RHcalohcunU Accessed on: 2015-05-19.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration (SAHMSA). Tip 34: Brief interventions and brief therapies for substance abuse. DHHS Publication No. (SMA) 99-3353. 1999. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64947/ Accessed on: 2010-08-31.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). TIP 43, Medication-Assisted Treatment for Opioid Addiction in Opioid Treatment Programs. DHHS Publication No. (SMA) 05-4048. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2005. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64164/ Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Advisory. Winter 2016; 15 (1): . Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//SMA16-4938/SMA16-4938.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-05.

Tan CH, Denny CH , Cheal NE , Sniezek JE, Kanny D. Alcohol Use and Binge Drinking Among Women of Childbearing Age-United States, 2011-2013. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2015; 64(37): 1042-1046. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6128a4.htm Accessed on: 2015-09-25.

The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University (CASA). An SBIRT Implementation and Process Change Manual for Practitioners. CASA. 2012. Available at: https://www.centeronaddiction.org/sites/default/files/files/An-SBIRT-implementation-and-process-change-manual-for-practitioners.pdfAccessed on: 2014-09-30.

Timko C, DeBenedetti A. A randomized controlled trial of intensive referral to 12-step self-help groups: one-year outcomes. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2007; 90(2-3): 270-279. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17524574 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Tonigan JS, Miller WR, Schermer C. Atheists, agnostics and Alcoholics Anonymous. Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 2002; 63: 534-541. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12380849 Accessed on: 2015-06-17.

Trachtenberg AI, Fleming MF. Diagnosis and Treatment of Drug Abuse in Family Practice. American Family Physician monograph. National Institute on Drug Abuse. American Academy of Family Physicians. 1994. Available at: http://archives.drugabuse.gov/diagnosis-treatment/diagnosis3.html

U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 . 7th Edition, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 2010. Available at: https://www.cnpp.usda.gov/sites/default/files/dietary_guidelines_for_americans/PolicyDoc.pdf Accessed on: 2014-09-23.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.. The Health Consequences of Smoking—50 Years of Progress: A Report of the Surgeon General. . Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention . 2014. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/50th-anniversary/index.htm Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

U.S. Preventative Services Task Force. Final Recommendation Statement – Depression in Adults: Screening. U.S. Preventative Services Task Force Website. 2016. Available at: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/RecommendationStatementFinal/depression-in-adults-screening1 Accessed on: 2016-02-02.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF). Screening for illicit drug use. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. 2008. Available at: https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/UpdateSummaryFinal/drug-use-illicit-screening Accessed on: 2014-09-30.

UMBCtube . SBIRT: Brief Intervention: At Risk Alcohol Use . Youtube . 2011. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ebsqETBWEdQ Accessed on: 2015-04-27.

United States Department of Health and Human Services. Screening for drug use in general medical settings: Resource guide. . 2010. Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/sites/default/files/resource_guide.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

United States Department of Labor. Counselors: Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010-11 Edition. US DOL. 2009. Available at: https://www.bls.gov/ooh/Community-and-Social-Service/School-and-career-counselors.htm Accessed on: 2010-07-07.

University of Wisconsin Center for Tobacco Research & Intervention (UW-CTRI). International Classification of Diseases (ICD) – 10 Codes Tobacco/Nicotine Dependence, and Secondhand Smoke Exposure Effective October 1, 2015. . 2015. Available at: http://www.ctri.wisc.edu/documents/icd10.pdf Accessed on: 2015-10-05.

USDA. Scientific Report of the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. . 2015. Available at: https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015-scientific-report/pdfs/scientific-report-of-the-2015-dietary-guidelines-advisory-committee.pdf Accessed on: 2015-11-21.

USDHHS. Facing Addiction in America. The Surgeon General’s Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health. Surgeon General Reports. 2016. Available at: https://addiction.surgeongeneral.gov/ Accessed on: 2016-11-17.

van der Wouden JC, Rietmeijer C. Motivational Interviewing in the Medical Care Setting. Patient Education Counseling . 2014; 96(1): 142. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24856448 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.

Wagner C, Conners W. Interaction techniques. Mid-Atlantic Addiction Technology Transfer Center. 2003c. Available at: http://www.ourdailybreadmissions.org/Philosophy%20of%20MI.htm Accessed on: 2005-08-22.

Wagner C, Conners W. Motivational interviewing principles. Motivational Interviewing Website. 2003b. Available at: http://www.ourdailybreadmissions.org/Philosophy%20of%20MI.htm Accessed on: 2005-08-22.

Waldron HB, Turner CW. Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for adolescent substance abuse. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. 2008; 37: 238-261. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18444060 Accessed on: 2015-06-17.

Washington State Department of Health (WSDH). Substance abuse during pregnancy: guidelines for screening and management . Office of Healthy Communities . 2015. Available at: http://here.doh.wa.gov/materials/guidelines-substance-abuse-pregnancy Accessed on: 2015-07-24.

Weddle M, Kokotailo P. Adolescent substance abuse. Confidentiality and consent.. The Pediatric Clinics of North America. 2002; 49(2): 301-315. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11993284 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Weisleder P. The right of minors to confidentiality and informed consent. Journal of Child Neurology. 2004; 19(2): 145-148. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15072109 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Westar HA , Aviram A. Core Skills in Motivational Interviewing. Psychotherapy (Chic). 2013; 50(3): 273-8. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24000834 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.

Westra HA. Motivational interviewing in the treatment of anxiety . The Guilford Press. 2012. Available at: https://www.guilford.com/books/Motivational-Interviewing-in-the-Treatment-of-Anxiety/Henny-Westra/9781462525997 Accessed on: 2015-06-25.

WHO ASSIST Working Group. The Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST): development, reliability and feasibility. Addiction. 2002; 97: 1183-1194. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12199834 Accessed on: 2015-06-02.

Williams JF, Smith VC, Committee on Substance Abuse. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. American Academy of Pediatrics. 2015; 136: 5: 1395-1406. Available at: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2015/10/13/peds.2015-3113 Accessed on: 2015-10-22.

Winzelberg A, Humphreys K. Should patients’ religiosity influence clinicians’ referral to 12-step self-help groups? Evidence from a study of 3,018 male substance abuse patients. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1999; 67(5): 790-4. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10535246 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

World Health Organization. ASSIST V3.0. World Health Organization. 2004. Available at: http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/activities/assist_v3_english.pdfAccessed on: 2011-04-08.

World Health Organization. The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. . 2013. Available at: http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/terminology/ICD10ClinicalDiagnosis.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-10.

Yudko E, Lozhkina O, Fouts A, et al. A comprehensive review of the psychometric properties of the drug abuse screening test. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2007; 32(2): 189-198. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17306727

Agerwala SM, McCance-Katz EF. Integrating screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) into clinical practice settings: A brief review. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 2012; 44: 307-317. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3801194/ Accessed on: 2017-07-26.

Alberta Health Services . Brief Tobacco Intervention: Ready 2 Quit . YouTube . 2012. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z4B74E_8ncc Accessed on: 2015-04-27.

American Academy of Family Physicians. HCPCS, CPT, & ICD-9 Codes Related to Tobacco Cessation Counseling. AAFP.org. 2011. Available at: http://www.integration.samhsa.gov/images/res/Coding-list.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-28.

American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). Alcohol use by youth and adolescents: a pediatric concern. Pediatrics. 2010; 125(5): 1078-1087. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/YouthGuide/YouthGuide.pdf Accessed on: 2010-10-29.

American Academy of Pediatrics. Policy statement. Substance use screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment for pediatricians. Pediatrics. 2011; 128(5): e1330-e1340. Available at: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/128/5/e1330.full Accessed on: 2011-12-13.

American Psychiatric Association. Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders. APA. 2013. Available at: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=8&sqi=2&ved=0ahUKEwiQpMKqjPPUAhWCbD4KHXHHDFkQFggxMAI&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychiatry.org%2FFile%2520Library%2FPsychiatrists%2FPractice%2FDSM%2FAPA_DSM-5-Substance-Use-Disorder.pdf&usg=AFQjCNHWoKLjpxTdYDFkTbjWM1h9dqOKNwAccessed on: 2013-06-26.

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Use of Medications in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use. . June 1, 2015. Available at: https://www.asam.org/quality-practice/guidelines-and-consensus-documents/npg Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

Azari S, Lum P, Ratanawongsa N, et al. A Skills-Based Curriculum for Teaching Motivational Interviewing-Enhanced Screening, Brief Intervention, and Referral to Treatment (SBIRT) to Medical Residents. MedEdPORTAL Publications. 2015. Available at: https://www.mededportal.org/publication/10080 Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Babor T, Higgins-Biddle JC, Saunders JB, Monteiro MG. AUDIT: The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: guidelines for use in primary care. World Health Organization: Department of Mental Health and Substance Dependence. Second Edition. 2001. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_MSD_MSB_01.6a.pdf Accessed on: 2008-10-10.

Babor TF, Higgins-Biddle JC. Brief Intervention for Hazardous and Harmful Drinking: A Manual for Use in Primary Care . World Health Organization. 2001. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/who_msd_msb_01.6b.pdf

Blow FC, Brower KJ, Schulenberg JE, Demo-Dananberg LM, Young JP, Beresford TP. The Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test – Geriatric Version (MAST-G): a new elderly-specific screening instrument. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 1992; 16(2): 372. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK99192/

BoiseCoE. Motivational Interviewing — OARS Skills. BoiseCoE. 2012. Available at: https://youtu.be/_KNIPGV7Xyg Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

Brown RL, Leonard T, Saunders LA, Papasouliotis O. The prevalence and detection of substance use disorder among inpatients ages 18 to 49: an opportunity for prevention. Preventive Medicine. 1998; 27(1): 101-110. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9465360 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Brown RL, Rounds LA. Conjoint screening questionnaires for alcohol and other drug abuse: criterion validity in a primary care practice. Wis Med J. 1995; 94(3): 135-40. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7778330 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Bush K, Kivlahan DR, McDonnell MB, et al.. The AUDIT Alcohol Consumption Questions (AUDIT-C): An effective brief screening test for problem drinking. Arch Internal Med. 1998; 3: 1789-1795. Available at: http://www.integration.samhsa.gov/images/res/tool_auditc.pdf Accessed on: 2015-09-25.

Butler C, Rollnick S, Cohen D, Russell I, Stott N. Motivational counseling versus brief advice for smokers in general practice: a randomized trial. BR J Gen Pract. 1999; 49: 611-616. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1316198/ Accessed on: 2013-10-25.

Carey KB. Substance use reduction in the context of outpatient psychiatric treatment: a collaborative, motivational, harm reduction approach. Community Mental Health Journal. 1996; 32: 291-306. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8790970 Accessed on: 2013-10-28.

Carlisle J, Shickle D, Cork M, McDonagh A. Concerns over confidentiality may deter adolescents from consulting their doctors. A qualitative exploration.. Journal of Medical Ethics. 2006; 32(3): 301-315. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2564464/ Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. Behavioral health trends in the United States: Results from the 2014 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. HHS Publication. 2015; SMA 15-4927, NSDUH Series H-50: . Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-FRR1-2014/NSDUH-FRR1-2014.htm

Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Secondhand Smoke Fact Sheet. CDC Website. 2010. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/secondhand_smoke/general_facts/index.htm Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (CSAT), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). TIP 24: A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary Care Clinicians. Rockville, MD. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 1997. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64827/ Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary Care Clinicians: TIP 24. Rockville, MD. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 1997. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64827/ Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Tobacco Use: Targeting the Nation’s Leading Killer. CDC Website. 2011. Available at: http://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/5527/

Chang G. Alcohol Screening Instruments for Pregnant Women. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). 2001; 25(3): 204-9. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh25-3/204-209.pdf Accessed on: 2011-01-10.

Clemens KJ, Vendruscolo LF. Anxious to Drink: Gabapentin Normalizes GABAergic Transmission in the Central Amygdala and Reduces Symptoms of Ethanol Dependence. The Journal of Neuroscience. 2008; 28: 9087-9089. Available at: http://www.jneurosci.org/content/28/37/9087.long Accessed on: 2013-11-05.

Clinical Tools Inc.. AUDIT Screening Tool. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2015. Available at: https://youtu.be/Xdsz__MaC1g Accessed on: 2015-09-25.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. CAGE Screening Tool. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2015. Available at: https://youtu.be/0mOg2rcCbjM Accessed on: 2015-08-20.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Diagnosing Alcohol Use Disorder. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/zGuiEbaAk3g Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Motivational Interviewing. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/4_q9WPTnO4k Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Motivational Interviewing: Managing Challenging Patient Behavior. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/4_q9WPTnO4k Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Video: Case: Mr. Rennie CAGE Interview. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2011. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MDAay15544U Accessed on: 2011-04-11.

Community Care of North Carolina. CCNC Motivational Interviewing Resource Guide. . 2013. Available at: https://www.communitycarenc.org/media/files/mi-guide.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-11.

Compton P. Urine toxicology screening: a case study. Emerging Solutions in Pain. 2009.

Copeland L, McNamara R, Kelson M, et al. Mechanisms of change within motivational interviewing in relation to health behaviors outcomes: A systematic review. Patient Educ Couns. 2015; 98(4): 401-11. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25535015 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.

D’Amico EJ, Paddock SM, Burnam A, Kung FY. Identification of and guidance for problem drinking by general medical providers: results from a national survey. Medical Care. 2005; 43(3): 229-236. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15725979 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Degenhardt L , Bucello C , Mathers B. Mortality among regular or dependent users of heroin and other opioids: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Addiction . 2011; 106: 32-51. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03140.x/abstract Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Defense. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders Stabilization Pocket Card . VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders. 2015. Available at: http://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/MH/sud/VADoDSUDCPGPocketCardStabilizationFinal.pdf Accessed on: 2017-02-21.

Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Defense. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders Screening and Treatment Pocket Card. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders. 2015. Available at: http://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/MH/sud/VADoDSUDCPGPocketcardScreeningandTreatmentRevised12716.pdf Accessed on: 2017-02-21.

Detecting alcoholism: the CAGE questionnaire. JAMA. 1984; 252: 1905-1907.

Devine EG, Brief DJ, Horton GE, LoCastro JS. Comprehensive Addiction Treatment: A cognitive-behavioral approach to treating substance use disorders. LULU Press. 2010; 4: . Available at: http://www.mass.gov/eohhs/gov/departments/dph/programs/substance-abuse/prevention/screening-brief-intervention-and-referral-to.htmlAccessed on: 2015-06-11.

DiLillo V , West DS. Motivational interviewing for weight loss . Psychiatric Clinics of North America . 2011; 34: 861-869. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22098809 Accessed on: 2015-05-27.

E Papastavrou , A Farmakas, G Karayiannis, E Kotrotsiou. Co morbidity of Post-Traumatic-Stress Disorders and Substance Use Disorder. Health Science Journal. 2011; 5(2): 107-17. Available at: http://www.hsj.gr/medicine/co-morbidity-of-posttraumaticstress-disorders-and-substance-use-disorder.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Eke PI, Dye BA, Wei L, Thornton-Evans GO, Genco RJ. Prevalence of Periodontitis in Adults in the United States: 2009 and 2010. Journal of Dental Research. 2012; 91: 914-20. Available at: http://jdr.sagepub.com/content/91/10/914 Accessed on: 2014-12-16.

Emmons K, Rollnick S. Motivational interviewing in health care settings: Opportunities and limitations. Am J Prev Med. 2001; 20(1): 68-74. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11137778 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Emmons KM, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing in Health Care Settings: Opportunities and Limitations. American journal of preventive medicine. 2001; 20.1: 68-74. Available at: https://meded.duke.edu/practice/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Emmons-MI-article1.pdf Accessed on: 2014-07-17.

Engle B. Motivational Interview with “Resistant” Heavy Drinker. . 2012. Available at: https://youtu.be/eNfy-FVvnRs Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

Feld A. The health insurance portability and accountability act (HIPAA): its broad effect on practice. . American Journal of Gastroenterology.. 2005; 100(7): 1440-1443. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15984962 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Fiore MC, Jaen CR, Baker TB, et al. Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence: 2008 Update. Clinical Practice Guideline. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. May 2008. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK63952/ Accessed on: 2013-09-26.

Food and Drug Administration. Campral (acamprosate calcium) Label. FDA Website. July 30, 2004a. Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/Scripts/cder/DrugsatFDA/index.cfm Accessed on: 2010-10-29.

Gialamas A, St John A, Laurence CO, Bubner TK, PoCT Management Committee. Point-of-care testing for patients with diabetes, hyperlipidaemia or coagulation disorders in the general practice setting: a systematic review. Fam Pract. 2010; Feb 27(1): 17-24. Available at: https://fampra.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/1/17.long Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Glynn LH, Moyers TB. Chasing change talk: the clinician’s role in evoking client language about change. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2010; 39(1): 65-70. Available at: http://www.journalofsubstanceabusetreatment.com/article/S0740-5472(10)00073-5/abstract Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

Glynn TJ, Manley MW. How to help your patients stop smoking- a National Cancer Institute manual for physicians. Smoking and Tobacco Control Program, National Cancer Institute, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health. Bethesda, MD. 1998. Available at: http://books.google.com/books/about/How_to_help_your_patients_stop_smoking.html?id=TM1pAAAAMAAJ

Grana R, Benowitz N, Glantz SA. E-cigarettes: A scientific review. Contemporary Reviews in Cardiovascular Medicine. 2014; 129: 1972-1986. Available at: http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/129/19/1972.full Accessed on: 2015-06-15.

Heumann D. Alcoholic hepatitis clinical presentation. Medscape Drugs and Diseases. 2014. Available at: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/170539-clinicalAccessed on: 2015-07-27.

Hicks M, Tough SC, Johnston D , et al. T-ACE and predictors of self-reported alcohol use during pregnancy in a large, population-based urban cohort . International Journal of Alcohol and Drug Research . 2014; 3 (1): 51-61. Accessed on: 2015-07-24.

IBHP. Warm hand-off referrals by the primary care provider to the behavioralist . California Metal Health Services Authority . 2007. Available at: https://www.ibhp.org/?section=pages&cid=122 Accessed on: 2015-06-11.

Ingersoll KS, Wagner CC, Gharib S. Motivational groups for community substance abuse problems. Mid-Atlantic Addiction Technology Transfer Center, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 2000. Available at: http://people.uncw.edu/ogler/MI%20Groups%20for%20Com%20SA%20Prog.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Crossing The Quality Chasm: A New Health System For The 21st Century. IOM. 2001. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/read/10027/chapter/1 Accessed on: 2015-07-15.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). Improving the Quality of Health Care for Mental and Substance-Use Conditions: Quality Chasm Series. Institute of Medicine. Board on Healthcare Services. 2006. Available at: https://www.nap.edu/read/11470/chapter/1 Accessed on: 2010-07-06.

Isaacson JH, Butler R, Zacharek M, Tzelepis A. Screening with the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) in an Inner-city Population. Journal of Gen Int Med. 1994; 9: 550-553. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7823225 Accessed on: 2015-06-01.

Ismene L. Petrakis, et al. . Comorbidity of alcoholism and psychiatric disorders. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism . 2002. Available at: http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh26-2/81-89.htm Accessed on: 2016-02-09.

Jensen CD, Cushing CC, Aylward BS, Craig JT, Sorell DM, Steele RG. Effectiveness of motivational interviewing interventions for adolescent substance use behavior change: A meta-analytic review. J of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2011; 79(4): 443-40. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21728400 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Johnson BA, Ait-Daoud N. Topiramate in the new generation of drugs: efficacy in the treatment of alcoholic patients. Curr Pharm Des. 2010; 16(19): 2103-2112. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20482511

Jørgensen CH. The efficacy of disulfiram for the treatment of alcohol use disorder. Alcohol Clin Exp Res.. 2011; 35: 10. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21615426 Accessed on: 2013-11-05.

Kaner EF, Dickinson HO, Beyer FR, et al. Effectiveness of brief alcohol interventions in primary care populations. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.. 2009; 4: . Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17443541 Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Kessler RC. The epidemiology of dual diagnosis. Biological Psychiatry. 2004; 56(10): 730–737. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15556117Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Kleber HD, Weiss RD, Anton RF, et al. Treatment of patients with substance use disorders, second edition. American Psychiatic Association. Am J Psychiatry. 2006; 163(8 Suppl): 5-82. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16981488 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Knight JR, Sherritt L, Harris SK, Gates EC, Chang G. Validity of brief alcohol screening tests among adolescents: a comparison of the AUDIT, POSIT, CAGE, and CRAFFT. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2003; 27(1): 67-73.

Knight JR, Shrier LA, Bravender TD, Farrell M, Vander Bilt J, Shaffer HJ. A new brief screen for adolescent substance abuse. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine. 1999; 153(6): 591-596. Available at: http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/347094 Accessed on: 2010-08-25.

Laudet AB. Substance abuse treatment providers’ referral to self-help: Review and future empirical directions. Int J Self Help Self Care. 2000; 1(3): 213-225. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2112772/ Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Legal Information Institute. 42 CFR Part 2 – Confidentiality of alcohol and drug abuse patient records. Cornell University Law School. 2003. Available at: https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/42/part-2 Accessed on: 2015-06-18.

Legal Information Institute. 42 U.S. Code § 290dd–2 – Confidentiality of records. Cornell University Law School. 2003. Available at: https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/290dd-2 Accessed on: 2015-06-18.

Lundal B, Moleni T, Burke B L, et al. Motivational Interviewing in Medical Care Settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis randomized controlled trials. Patient Education and Counseling. 2013; 93(2): 157-68. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24001658 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.

Lussier, M, Richard C. The motivational interview: In practice. Canadian Family Physician. 2007; 53: 2117-2118. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2231547/ Accessed on: 2015-06-17.

Lyme A. Motivational Interviewing – Good Example. TheIRETAchannel. 2013. Available at: https://youtu.be/67I6g1I7Zao Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

Madras BK, Compton WM, Avula D, et al. Screening, brief interventions, referral to treatment (SBIRT) for illicit drug and alcohol use at multiple healthcare sites. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 99: 280-295. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2760304/ Accessed on: 2011-03-24.

Marlatt GA. Harm Reduction: come as you are. Addict Behav. 1996; 21: 779-88. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8904943 Accessed on: 2013-10-25.

Mee-Lee D (ed). The ASAM Criteria . . 2013; 3rd edition: . Available at: https://www.asam.org/publications/the-asam-criteria Accessed on: 2014-09-12.

Meneses-Gaya C, Zuardi AW, Loureiro SR, et al. Is the Full Version of the AUDIT Really Necessary? Study of the Validity and Internal Construct of Its Abbreviated Versions. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 2010; 34: 1417-1424. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20491736 Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Miller W. Motivational interviewing with problem drinkers. Behav Psych. 1983; 11: 147-172. Available at: https://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=5845668 Accessed on: 2013-10-25.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. Applications of Motivational Interviewing Series. New York: Guilford Press.. 2012; 3rd edition: . Available at: https://www.guilford.com/books/Motivational-Interviewing/Miller-Rollnick/9781609182274 Accessed on: 2014-07-08.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. The Guilford Press. 2013. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Motivational-Interviewing-Third-Edition-Applications/dp/1609182278 Accessed on: 2014-10-10.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational interviewing: preparing people to change addictive behavior.. New York, NY; Guilford Press. 1991. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Motivational-Interviewing-Preparing-Addictive-Behavior/dp/089862469X Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Monto A, Currie S, Wright TL. Liver disease in injection drug users with hepatitis C, with and without HIV coinfection. J Addict Dis. 2008; 27(2): 49-59. Available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J069v27n02_06?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dpubmed#.Ula6dplDvmcAccessed on: 2013-10-10.

Moyers TB. The Relationship in Motivational Learning. Psychotherapy (Chic). 2014; 51(3): 358-63. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25068193Accessed on: 2015-09-29.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). Assessing Alcohol Problems: A guide for clinicians and researchers. NIH Publication No. 03–3745. 2003. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/AssessingAlcohol/index.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). Helping Patients Who Drink Too Much: A Clinician’s Guide, Updated 2005 Edition. Bethesda, MD. 2007. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/CliniciansGuide2005/guide.pdf Accessed on: 2010-10-28.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). Helping Patients Who Drink Too Much: A Clinician’s Guide. Bethesda, Md. 2005 (Updated 2007). Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/CliniciansGuide2005/guide.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Alcohol Alert No. 56: Screening for Alcohol Use Problems — An Update. NIAAA Website. 2002a. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa56.htm Accessed on: 2008-10-10.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Linked Epidemics: Drug Abuse and HIV/AIDS. Topics in Brief. 2005. Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/hivaids-drug-abuse-intertwined-epidemics Accessed on: 2011-04-16.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Principles of Drug Addiction Treatment: A Research-Based Guide. Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse. 2012; December: . Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/principles-drug-addiction-treatment-research-based-guide-third-edition/evidence-based-approaches-to-drug-addiction-treatment Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. The NIDA-Modified ASSIST. NIDA. 2010. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/resource-guide-screening-drug-use-in-general-medical-settings/nida-quick-screen Accessed on: 2011-04-08.

National Institutes of Health. NIH-funded study finds that gabapentin may treat alcohol dependence. National Institutes of Health. 2013. Available at: https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/nih-funded-study-finds-gabapentin-may-treat-alcohol-dependence Accessed on: 2013-11-05.

Newcombe DA, Humeniuk RE, Ali R. Validation of the World Health Organization Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST): report of results from the Australian site.. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2005; 24: 217-226. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16096125 Accessed on: 2015-06-01.

NIAAA. Alcohol Facts and Statistics. NIAAA. 2015. Available at: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/AlcoholFacts&Stats/AlcoholFacts&Stats.pdf Accessed on: 2015-04-29.

NIAAA. Alcohol’s Effects on the Body. NIAAA. 2015. Available at: http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/alcohols-effects-body Accessed on: 2015-04-29.

NIAAA. Beyond hangovers. NIAAA Publications. 2010b. Available at: http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Hangovers/beyondHangovers.htm#chapter03 Accessed on: 2015-07-27.

NIDA. The NIDA Quick Screen. Screening for Drug Use in General Medical Settings Resource Guide. 2012. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/resource-guide-screening-drug-use-in-general-medical-settings/nida-quick-screen Accessed on: 2013-12-18.

O’Malley AS, Reschovsky JD. Referral and consultation communication between primary care and specialist physicians: finding common ground.. Arch Intern Med. 2011; 171(1): 56-65. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21220662 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Office of National Drug Control Policy. Medication Assisted Treatment for Opioid Addiction. Healthcare Brief ONDCP. 2012. Available at: https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/ondcp/recovery/medication_assisted_treatment_9-21-20121.pdf Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

Pilowsky DJ, Wu L. Screening for alcohol and drug use disorders among adults in primary care: a review. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2012; 3: 25-34. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22553426 Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Pilowsky DJ, Wu LT. Screening for alcohol and drug use disorders among adults in primary care: a review. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2012; 3: 25-34. Available at: https://www.dovepress.com/screening-for-alcohol-and-drug-use-disorders-among-adults-in-primary-c-peer-reviewed-article-SAR Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

Pirlott AG, Kisbu-Sakarya Y, Defrancesco CA, et al. Mechanisms of Motivational Interviewing in Health Promotion: A Bayesian mediation analysis. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2012; 9(1): 69. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22681874 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.

Prochaska JO, DiClemente CC. Transtheoretical therapy: toward a more integrative model of change. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice. 1982; 19: 276-288. Available at: http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/pst/19/3/276/ Accessed on: 2013-10-25.

Prochaska JO, Velicer WF. The transtheoretical model of health behavior change. American Journal of Health Promotion. 1997; 12: 38-48. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10170434 Accessed on: 2013-10-25.

Rahm AK, Boggs JM , Martin C, et al.. Facilitators and barriers to implementing SBIRT in primary care in integrated health care settings . Subst Abus. 2014. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25127073 Accessed on: 2015-05-27.

Roche AM, Freeman T. Brief interventions: good in theory but weak in practice. Drug and Alcohol Review. 2004; 23(1): 11-18. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14965883 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Rollnick S, Butler CC, Stott N. Helping smokers make decisions: the enhancement of brief interventions for general medical practice. Patient Educ Couns. 1997; 31: 191-203. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9277242 Accessed on: 2013-10-25.

Rollnick S, Mason P, Butler C. Health behavior change: a guide for practitioners. Churchill Livingstone. 2003. Available at: https://books.google.com/books?id=iWjZQAAACAAJ&lr= Accessed on: 2013-10-25.

Rollnick S, Miller WR. What is motivational interviewing?. Behav Cognitive Psychother. 1995; 23: 325-334. Available at: http://www.motivationalinterview.net/clinical/whatismi.html Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Rosengren D, Wagner CC. Motivational interviewing: shall we dance? . In: Coombs R, ed. Addiction Recovery Tools: A Practitioner’s Handbook. Sage Publications. 2001. Available at: https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/addiction-recovery-tools/book9537 Accessed on: 2015-11-11.

Rounsaville BJ. Using motivational interviewing in routine care. Paper presented at: National Institute on Drug Abuse Conference–Blending Clinical Practice and Research. March 14, 2002. Available at: http://archives.drugabuse.gov/pdf/blending/Rounsaville.pdf Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Rubio G, Jiménez-Arriero MA, Martínez I, Ponce G, Palomo T. Efficacy of physician-delivered brief counseling intervention for binge drinkers. Department of Psychiatry, Complutense University of Madrid, Hospital 12 de Octubre, Madrid, Spain, Am J Med. 2010; 123(1): 72-8. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20102995 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

SAMHSA Partners for Recovery. Pathways to Healing and Recovery: Perspectives from Inpiduals with Histories of Alcohol and Other Drug Problems. . 2010. Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/recovery_pathways_report.pdf Accessed on: 2016-04-27.

SAMHSA. Coding for SBI Reimbursement . SAMHSA. 2008. Available at: http://www.integration.samhsa.gov/clinical-practice/sbirt/Detailed_information_about_coding_for_SBI_reimbursement.pdf Accessed on: 2011-11-01.

SAMHSA. Medication and Counseling Treatment. Medication Assisted Treatment. 2015; 9/28/15: . Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/treatment#medications-used-in-mat Accessed on: 2016-11-30.

SAMHSA. Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings. NSDUH Series H-46, HHS . 2013. Available at: http://archive.samhsa.gov/data/NSDUH/2012SummNatFindDetTables/NationalFindings/NSDUHresults2012.pdf Accessed on: 2014-11-26.

Saunders JB, Aasland OG, Babor TF. Development of the alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT): WHO collaborative project on early detection of persons with harmful alcohol consumption —II. Addiction. 1993; 88(6): 791-803. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8329970

Schoener EP, Hopper JA, Pierre JD. Injection drug use in North America. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2002; 16(3): 535-551. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12371114 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Siu AL, U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Behavioral counseling and pharmacotherapy interventions for tobacco cessation in adults, including pregnant women: A review of reviews for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2015. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26389730 Accessed on: 2016-02-09.

Skinner HA. The drug abuse screening test. Addiction Behavior. 1982; 7(4): 363-71. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7183189 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Smith PC, Schmidt SM, Allensworth-Davies D, Saitz R. Primary care validation of a single question alcohol screening test. J Gen Intern Med. 2009; 25(4): 375. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2695521/ Accessed on: 2017-03-09.

Smith PC, Schmidt SM, Saitz R. A single-question screening test for drug use in primary care. Annals Intern Med. 2010; 170(13): 1155-1160. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2911954/ Accessed on: 2014-09-10.

Smyth A, Teo KK, Rangarajan S, O’Donnell M, Zhang M, Rana P, Leong DP, Dagenais G, Seron P, Rosengren A, Schutte AE, Lopez-Jaramillo P, Oguz A, Chifamba J, Diaz R, Lear S, Avezum A, Kumar R, Mohan V, Szuba A, Wei L, Yang W, Jian B, McKee M, Yusuf S. Alcohol Consumption and Cardiovascular Disease, Cancer, Injury, Admission to Hospital, and Mortality: A Prospective Cohort Study. The Lancet. 2015. Available at: http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(15)00235-4/references Accessed on: 2015-09-28.

Sobell, Sobell. Motivational interviewing strategies and techniques: Rationales and examples. Nova Southeastern University. 2008. Available at: http://www.nova.edu/gsc/forms/mi_rationale_techniques.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

Stern TA, Gross AF, Stern TW, et al. Current approaches to the recognition and treatment of alcohol withdrawal and delirium tremens: “old wine in new bottles” or “new wine in old bottles”. Primary Care Companion to The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2010; 12(3): . Available at: http://www.psychiatrist.com/PCC/article/Pages/2010/v12n03/10r00991ecr.aspx Accessed on: 2017-03-16.

Storie M. SBIRT Brief Intervention for Preparation Stage, High Risk Client. Colorado SBIRT. Youtube. 2011. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SfFF7jcm3tA Accessed on: 2015-05-19.

Storie Misti. SBIRT AUDIT Screening. SBIRT Colorado. Youtube. 2011. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RHcalohcunU Accessed on: 2015-05-19.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration (SAHMSA). Tip 34: Brief interventions and brief therapies for substance abuse. DHHS Publication No. (SMA) 99-3353. 1999. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64947/ Accessed on: 2010-08-31.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). TIP 43, Medication-Assisted Treatment for Opioid Addiction in Opioid Treatment Programs. DHHS Publication No. (SMA) 05-4048. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2005. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64164/ Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Advisory. Winter 2016; 15 (1): . Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//SMA16-4938/SMA16-4938.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-05.

Tan CH, Denny CH , Cheal NE , Sniezek JE, Kanny D. Alcohol Use and Binge Drinking Among Women of Childbearing Age-United States, 2011-2013. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2015; 64(37): 1042-1046. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6128a4.htm Accessed on: 2015-09-25.

The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University (CASA). An SBIRT Implementation and Process Change Manual for Practitioners. CASA. 2012. Available at: https://www.centeronaddiction.org/sites/default/files/files/An-SBIRT-implementation-and-process-change-manual-for-practitioners.pdfAccessed on: 2014-09-30.

Timko C, DeBenedetti A. A randomized controlled trial of intensive referral to 12-step self-help groups: one-year outcomes. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2007; 90(2-3): 270-279. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17524574 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Tonigan JS, Miller WR, Schermer C. Atheists, agnostics and Alcoholics Anonymous. Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 2002; 63: 534-541. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12380849 Accessed on: 2015-06-17.

Trachtenberg AI, Fleming MF. Diagnosis and Treatment of Drug Abuse in Family Practice. American Family Physician monograph. National Institute on Drug Abuse. American Academy of Family Physicians. 1994. Available at: http://archives.drugabuse.gov/diagnosis-treatment/diagnosis3.html

U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 . 7th Edition, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 2010. Available at: https://www.cnpp.usda.gov/sites/default/files/dietary_guidelines_for_americans/PolicyDoc.pdf Accessed on: 2014-09-23.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.. The Health Consequences of Smoking—50 Years of Progress: A Report of the Surgeon General. . Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention . 2014. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/50th-anniversary/index.htm Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

U.S. Preventative Services Task Force. Final Recommendation Statement – Depression in Adults: Screening. U.S. Preventative Services Task Force Website. 2016. Available at: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/RecommendationStatementFinal/depression-in-adults-screening1 Accessed on: 2016-02-02.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF). Screening for illicit drug use. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. 2008. Available at: https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/UpdateSummaryFinal/drug-use-illicit-screening Accessed on: 2014-09-30.

UMBCtube . SBIRT: Brief Intervention: At Risk Alcohol Use . Youtube . 2011. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ebsqETBWEdQ Accessed on: 2015-04-27.

United States Department of Health and Human Services. Screening for drug use in general medical settings: Resource guide. . 2010. Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/sites/default/files/resource_guide.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-16.

United States Department of Labor. Counselors: Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010-11 Edition. US DOL. 2009. Available at: https://www.bls.gov/ooh/Community-and-Social-Service/School-and-career-counselors.htm Accessed on: 2010-07-07.

University of Wisconsin Center for Tobacco Research & Intervention (UW-CTRI). International Classification of Diseases (ICD) – 10 Codes Tobacco/Nicotine Dependence, and Secondhand Smoke Exposure Effective October 1, 2015. . 2015. Available at: http://www.ctri.wisc.edu/documents/icd10.pdf Accessed on: 2015-10-05.

USDA. Scientific Report of the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. . 2015. Available at: https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015-scientific-report/pdfs/scientific-report-of-the-2015-dietary-guidelines-advisory-committee.pdf Accessed on: 2015-11-21.

USDHHS. Facing Addiction in America. The Surgeon General’s Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health. Surgeon General Reports. 2016. Available at: https://addiction.surgeongeneral.gov/ Accessed on: 2016-11-17.

van der Wouden JC, Rietmeijer C. Motivational Interviewing in the Medical Care Setting. Patient Education Counseling . 2014; 96(1): 142. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24856448 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.

Wagner C, Conners W. Interaction techniques. Mid-Atlantic Addiction Technology Transfer Center. 2003c. Available at: http://www.ourdailybreadmissions.org/Philosophy%20of%20MI.htm Accessed on: 2005-08-22.

Wagner C, Conners W. Motivational interviewing principles. Motivational Interviewing Website. 2003b. Available at: http://www.ourdailybreadmissions.org/Philosophy%20of%20MI.htm Accessed on: 2005-08-22.

Waldron HB, Turner CW. Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for adolescent substance abuse. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. 2008; 37: 238-261. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18444060 Accessed on: 2015-06-17.

Washington State Department of Health (WSDH). Substance abuse during pregnancy: guidelines for screening and management . Office of Healthy Communities . 2015. Available at: http://here.doh.wa.gov/materials/guidelines-substance-abuse-pregnancy Accessed on: 2015-07-24.

Weddle M, Kokotailo P. Adolescent substance abuse. Confidentiality and consent.. The Pediatric Clinics of North America. 2002; 49(2): 301-315. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11993284 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Weisleder P. The right of minors to confidentiality and informed consent. Journal of Child Neurology. 2004; 19(2): 145-148. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15072109 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Westar HA , Aviram A. Core Skills in Motivational Interviewing. Psychotherapy (Chic). 2013; 50(3): 273-8. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24000834 Accessed on: 2015-09-29.

Westra HA. Motivational interviewing in the treatment of anxiety . The Guilford Press. 2012. Available at: https://www.guilford.com/books/Motivational-Interviewing-in-the-Treatment-of-Anxiety/Henny-Westra/9781462525997 Accessed on: 2015-06-25.

WHO ASSIST Working Group. The Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST): development, reliability and feasibility. Addiction. 2002; 97: 1183-1194. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12199834 Accessed on: 2015-06-02.

Williams JF, Smith VC, Committee on Substance Abuse. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. American Academy of Pediatrics. 2015; 136: 5: 1395-1406. Available at: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2015/10/13/peds.2015-3113 Accessed on: 2015-10-22.

Winzelberg A, Humphreys K. Should patients’ religiosity influence clinicians’ referral to 12-step self-help groups? Evidence from a study of 3,018 male substance abuse patients. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1999; 67(5): 790-4. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10535246 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

World Health Organization. ASSIST V3.0. World Health Organization. 2004. Available at: http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/activities/assist_v3_english.pdfAccessed on: 2011-04-08.

World Health Organization. The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. . 2013. Available at: http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/terminology/ICD10ClinicalDiagnosis.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-10.

Yudko E, Lozhkina O, Fouts A, et al. A comprehensive review of the psychometric properties of the drug abuse screening test. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2007; 32(2): 189-198. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17306727

Approximately 20 to 25% of primary care patients are likely to have a current substance use problem or health problem related to tobacco, alcohol, or drug use (Madras et al., 2009; Pilowsky & Wu, 2012). Screening, brief interventions, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) provided to all patients is effective in reducing alcohol, drug, and tobacco use (Agerwala & McCance-Katz, 2012; Pilowsky & Wu, 2012). Brief intervention in primary care is an effective and cost-efficient approach to reduce patients’ alcohol use (Seale et al., 2010; Madras et al., 2009). SBIRT was originally designed for patients with alcohol and tobacco use, but there is growing evidence that brief interventions for illicit drug use also leads to positive patient outcomes (Compton, 2009). Motivational interviewing is a set of structured counseling skills that has been shown to be one of the most effective means of motivating patients to change addictive behavior (Miller and Rollnick, 2012) and has been used successfully in primary care settings as the brief intervention phase of addiction treatment (Rahm et al., 2014).

Unfortunately, PCPs screen less than half of their patients for tobacco use and less than a third for alcohol use (Roche & Freeman, 2004; Seale et al., 2010). Brief interventions happen even less often than screening (NDCP, 2008). In patients who screened positive for substance use, less than 75% received a brief intervention. A lack of adequate training is the most frequently reported barrier to screening and brief intervention (Le et al., 2015). Appropriate follow-up is also happening less often as well (D’Amico et al., 2005). Only 48% of people with excessive alcohol use reported receiving follow-up, with most simply being told to “stop drinking”. There is also a practice gap in referral to treatment. Less than one-fifth of PCPs make a referral after screening positively for substance abuse or risky substance use (Madras et al., 2009). Primary care physicians need to understand the different types of specialty treatment so that they can make appropriate referrals for their substance abuse patients (SAMHSA, 1997).

Practice Gap References

Agerwala SM, McCance-Katz EF. Integrating screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) into clinical practice settings: A brief review. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 2012; 44: 307-317. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3801194/ Accessed on: 2017-07-26.

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (CSAT), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). TIP 24: A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary Care Clinicians. Rockville, MD. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 1997. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64827/ Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Compton P. Urine toxicology screening: a case study. Emerging Solutions in Pain. 2009.

D’Amico EJ, Paddock SM, Burnam A, Kung FY. Identification of and guidance for problem drinking by general medical providers: results from a national survey. Medical Care. 2005; 43(3): 229-236. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15725979 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Le KB, Johnson AJ, Seale JP, Woodall H, Clark DC, Parish DC, Miller DP. Primary care residents lack comfort and experience with alcohol screening and brief intervention: A multi-site survey. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2015; 30: 790-796. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25666210 Accessed on: 2015-06-19.

Madras BK, Compton WM, Avula D, et al. Screening, brief interventions, referral to treatment (SBIRT) for illicit drug and alcohol use at multiple healthcare sites. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 99: 280-295. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2760304/ Accessed on: 2011-03-24.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. The Guilford Press. 2013. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Motivational-Interviewing-Third-Edition-Applications/dp/1609182278 Accessed on: 2014-10-10.

Office of National Drug Control Policy. Screen & brief intervention. . 2008. Available at: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ondcp/screen_brief_intv.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-18.

Pilowsky DJ, Wu LT. Screening for alcohol and drug use disorders among adults in primary care: a review. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2012; 3: 25-34. Available at: https://www.dovepress.com/screening-for-alcohol-and-drug-use-disorders-among-adults-in-primary-c-peer-reviewed-article-SAR Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

Rahm AK, Boggs JM , Martin C, et al.. Facilitators and barriers to implementing SBIRT in primary care in integrated health care settings . Subst Abus. 2014. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25127073 Accessed on: 2015-05-27.

Roche AM, Freeman T. Brief interventions: good in theory but weak in practice. Drug and Alcohol Review. 2004; 23(1): 11-18. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14965883 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Seale JP, Shellenberger S, Velzsquez MM, Boltri JM, Okosun I, Guyinn M, Vinson D, Cornelius M, Johnson JA. Impact of vital signs screening and clinician prompting on alcohol and tobacco screening and intervention rates: a pre-post intervention comparison. BMC Fam Pract. 2010; 11:18: . Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20205740 Accessed on: 2014-07-28.

Chronic pain is common, affecting a substantial number of people. For example, the National Health Interview from 2016 found that approximately 18% of adults have pain most days or every day, as well as an estimated 42% of adults have pain some days, indicating a high need for pain management (CDC, 2017). Common musculoskeletal pain conditions, such as arthritis, back problems, or frequent and severe headaches, affect around 43% of U.S. adults (Tsang et al., 2008).

Clinical guidelines for the use of chronic opioid therapy in chronic noncancer pain to reduce risk of addiction, other substance misuse, and overdose were developed by the American Pain Society and the American Academy of Pain Medicine, based on an extensive review of the literature by a multidisciplinary panel (Chou et al., 2009). More recent evidence-based guidelines by the CDC on opioid prescribing were even stronger in a number of these recommendations, such as recommending urine drug testing at baseline and periodically during chronic opioid therapy as well as checking prescription drug monitoring data bases regularly (Dowell, et al., 2016).

An opioid misuse epidemic continues: 12.5 million Americans or 4.7% of the American population age twelve or older reported misuse of pain relievers in the past year, with misuse defined as meaning use other than as recommended by a doctor (Hughes et al., 2016). Of those people, only 63% said that their opioid misuse was to relieve pain. Another part of the problem is that the rate of overdose deaths is steadily increasing. In 2015, over 22,000 deaths involved prescription opioids, an increase from 19,000 in 2014, which is nearly a 16% increase (CDC, 2016).

Despite these problems and the guidelines which recommend only 3 day initial prescriptions when opioids are needed to manage pain, providers continue to prescribe opioids at a high rate, enough for a bottle for everyone in the U.S. per year (Dowell, et al., 2016). According to national surveys, physicians do not follow key elements of the plan recommended by evidence-based opioid prescribing guidelines including screening for risk of addiction/misuse, assessing substance misuse, communicating effectively about opioid use and risks, and reducing the risk of prescriptions drug overdose and persion (CASA, July 2005, p. 53, p. 54, p. 7; Adams, et al. 2001).

On the other hand, pain is not recognized or adequately treated in other instances, especially for members of racial and ethnic minority groups, women, elderly, people with cognitive impairment, cancer pain, and end of life pain (Dowell, et al., 2016). Chronic pain, especially when inadequately treated, diminishes the quality of life.

The need for education/skills training in order to be able to follow the guidelines in pain management and safe opioid prescribing is evident from national physician surveys (CASA, July 2005, pp. 6, 90-91; CASA, April 2000, p. ii; Morley-Forster, et al. 2003). Based on the overall results of their physician survey on the problem of drug persion, CASA concluded that physicians should receive more continuing medical education related to prescribing and administering controlled substances and identifying, diagnosing, and treating substance misuse and addiction (CASA, July 2005, p. 100).

Practice Gap References

Adams NJ, Plane MB, Fleming MF, et al. Opioids and the Treatment of Chronic Pain in a Primary Care Sample. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2001; 22: 791-796. Accessed on: 2015-09-21.

Califano, JA et al. Under the Counter: The persion and Abuse of Controlled Prescription Drugs in the U.S. The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University. 2005. Available at: http://www.centeronaddiction.org/addiction-research/reports/under-the-counter-persion-abuse-controlled-perscription-drugs Accessed on: 2013-09-13.

CDC. Opioid Data Analysis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2016. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/analysis.html Accessed on: 2017-03-27.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. QuickStats: Age-Adjusted Percentage of Adults Aged ≥18 Years Who Were Never in Pain, in Pain Some Days, or in Pain Most Days or Every Day in the Past 6 Months, by Employment Status — National Health Interview Survey, United States, 2016. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report . 2017; 66: 796. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/66/wr/mm6629a8.htm?s_cid=mm6629a8_e Accessed on: 2017-08-01.

Chou R, Fanciullo G, Fine P, et al. Clinical guidelines for the use of chronic opioid therapy in chronic noncancer pain. J Pain. 2009; 10(2): 113-130. Available at: http://www.jpain.org/article/S1526-5900(08)00831-6/abstract

Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain — United States, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016; ePub: March 2016: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1er. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/rr/rr6501e1.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-16.

Hughes A, Williams MR, Lipari RN, et al. Prescription Drug Use and Misuse in the United States: Results from the 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. SAMHSA. 2016. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-FFR2-2015/NSDUH-FFR2-2015.htm Accessed on: 2016-09-13.

Morley-Forster PK, Clark AJ, Speechley M, et al. Attitudes Toward Opioid Use for Chronic Pain: A Canadian Physician Survey. Pain Res Manage. 2003; 8: 189-94. Accessed on: 2015-09-21.

Nahin RL. Estimates of pain prevalence and severity in adults: United States, 2012. J Pain. 2015; 16(8): . Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26028573 Accessed on: 2017-03-27.

The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (CASA). Missed Opportunity: National Survey of Primary Care Physicians and Patients on Substance Abuse. The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University, Survey Research Laboratory. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois at Chicago. 2000. Available at: http://www.centeronaddiction.org/addiction-research/reports/national-survey-primary-care-physicians-patients-substance-abuse Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

Tsang A, Von Korf M, Lee S, et al. Common chronic pain conditions in developed and developing. J Pain. 2008; 9(10): 883-91. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18602869 Accessed on: 2017-03-27.

Part 1:

Data from the 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health shows that a serious epidemic of opioid misuse continues at a rate similar to the previous 5 years, with 4.5 million people aged 12 or older engaging in misuse of pain relievers (SAMHSA, 2014). Data from the following year cannot be compared due to a refinement in the definition of misuse to mean any way not directed by a doctor, but shows that the epidemic continues at significantly high rate (Hughes et al., 2016). With the new definition of misuse, 12.5 million Americans or 4.7% of the American population age twelve or older had misuse of pain relievers in the past year. Of those people, approximately 63% said that their opioid misuse was to relieve pain. Past year use of heroin continued to rise and was reported by 828,000 people age twelve or older in 2015. The rate of overdose deaths is also steadily increasing. In 2015, over 22,000 deaths involved prescription opioids, which is an increase from 19,000 in 2014, which is nearly a 16% increase (CDC, 2016).

Although the number of people receiving treatment for opioid use disorder has increased, the number of people being treated is still only a small fraction of those needing treatment: Past year treatment for prescription pain reliever misuse was still only received by 746,000 individuals in 2013 (SAMHSA, 2014).

Buprenorphine is a safe and effective treatment for opioid use disorder that offers patients a more widely available, accessible, convenient treatment option as compared to traditional opioid treatment programs (OTP) (SAMHSA, 2004; SAMHSA, 2016). The Drug Addiction Treatment Act (DATA) of 2000—an amendment to the Controlled Substances Act — allowed physicians who are not part of an OTP to prescribe buprenorphine with additional training and a waiver to the Controlled Substances Act. The Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act of 2016 (CARA) added nurse practitioners and physician assistants to the list of providers who can train to prescribe buprenorphine and become waivered.

The law requires physicians to complete an 8-hour buprenorphine training conducted by an approved organization in order to prescribe it; the required training for nurse practitioners and physician assistants is 24 hours. While buprenorphine is relatively safe, there are risks of overdose and death due to buprenorphine and there is a risk of diversion (FSMB, 2013), which, in addition to skills needed to prescribe the medication effectively for each individual, are among the reasons for the mandatory training.

This buprenorphine training activity prepares providers to prescribe buprenorphine safely and effectively to address needs of the millions of Americans with opioid use problems. The activity has been developed to meet the DATA 2000 training guidelines as defined in Public Law 106-310-106th Congress as well as the Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act of 2016 (S 524, Title III, Section 303-114th Congress) and is endorsed by the American Society of Addiction Medicine, one of the approved training organizations named in DATA 2000. The activity content was initially based upon SAMHSA’s 2004 publication Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) #40: Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction and follow the Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office (FSMB, 2013). It has been edited to SAMHSA’s Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder – Review and Update (2016), ASAM’s National Practice Guideline For the Use of Medication in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use (2015), and the CDC’s guidelines on opioid treatment (Dowell et al., 2015) as well as CARA 2016. The courses are regularly reviewed and updated by ASAM members who are experts in the field of addiction medicine and buprenorphine treatment.

Practice Gap References

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Use of Medications in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use. American Society of Addiction Medicine. June 1, 2015. Available at: http://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/practice-support/guidelines-and-consensus-docs/asam-national-practice-guideline-supplement1b630f9472bc604ca5b7ff000030b21a.pdf?sfvrsn=0 Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

CDC. Opioid Data Analysis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2016. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/analysis.html Accessed on: 2017-03-27.

Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain — United States, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016; ePub: March 2016: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1er. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/rr/rr6501e1.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-16.

FSMB. Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office. FSMB Website http://www.fsmb.org. 2013. Available at: https://www.fsmb.org/Media/Default/PDF/FSMB/Advocacy/2013_model_policy_treatment_opioid_addiction.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-11.

Hughes A, Williams MR, Lipari RN, et al. Prescription Drug Use and Misuse in the United States: Results from the 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. SAMHSA. 2016. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-FFR2-2015/NSDUH-FFR2-2015.htm Accessed on: 2016-09-13.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. Rockville, Md: Center For Substance Abuse Treatment. Treatment Improvement Protocol Series, No. 40, USDHHS Publication (SMA) 04-3939. 2004b. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64245/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings . NSDUH Series H-48. 2014; HHS Publication No. (SMA) 14-4863: . Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUHresultsPDFWHTML2013/Web/NSDUHresults2013.pdf Accessed on: 2015-03-12.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Advisory. Winter 2016; 15 (1): . Available at: http://store.samhsa.gov/shin/content//SMA16-4938/SMA16-4938.pdf Accessed on: 2016-03-05.

U.S. House of Representatives. Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act of 2016. docs.house.gov. 2016. Available at: http://docs.house.gov/billsthisweek/20160704/CRPT-114HRPT-S524.pdf Accessed on: 2016-11-17.

21 USC § 812 . Schedules of controlled substances. www.law.cornell.edu/uscode. 2012. Available at: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/21/812#b_3 Accessed on: 2013-12-04.

Actavis Elizabeth LLC. Buprenorphine HCl and naloxone HCl prescribing information. Actavis. 2013. Available at: https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/archives/fdaDrugInfo.cfm?archiveid=110562 Accessed on: 2014-10-07.

Addiction Treatment Forum. History of Buprenorphine. Addiction Treatment Forum Website. 2013. Available at: http://atforum.com/2013/02/history-of-buprenorphine/ Accessed on: 2015-04-09.

Agency Medical Director’s Group. Interagency guideline on opioid dosing for chronic non-cancer pain. http://www.agencymeddirectors.wa.gov/. . Available at: http://www.agencymeddirectors.wa.gov/files/opioidgdline.pdf Accessed on: 2016-04-27.

Al-Tayyib A, Rice E, Rhoades H, Riggs P. Association between prescription drug misuse and injection among runaway homeless youth. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013; 134: 406-9. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24300900 Accessed on: 2014-09-26.

Alford D, LaBelle C, Richardson J, O’Connell J, Hohl C, Cheng D, Samet J. Treating Homeless Opioid Dependent Patients with Buprenorphine in an Office-Based Setting. Society of General Internal Medicine. 2007; 22: 171-176. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1824722/ Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Alford DP, Compton P, Samet JH. Acute Pain Management for Patients Receiving Maintenance Methadone or Buprenorphine Therapy. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2006; 144(2): 127-134. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1892816/

Alford DP, Labelle CT, Kretsch N, Bergeron A, Winter M, Botticelli M, Samet JH. Collaborative care of opioid-addicted patients in primary care using buprenorphine: five-year experience. Archives of Internal Medicine. 2011; 171(5): 425-31. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3059544/ Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Alho H, Sinclair D, Vuori E, Holopainen A. Abuse liability of buprenorphine-naloxone tablets in untreated IV drug users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007; 88(1): 75-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17055191 Accessed on: 2013-12-09.

AMA. Promote safe storage and disposal of opioids and all medications.. AMA-ASSN.org. 2017. Available at: https://www.ama-assn.org/sites/default/files/media-browser/public/government/advocacy/opioid-safe-storage-and-disposal.pdf Accessed on: 2017-04-07.

Amass L, Ling W, Freese TE, et al. Bringing buprenorphine-naloxone detoxification to community treatment providers: the NIDA Clinical Trials Network field experience. Am J Addict. 2004; 13 Suppl 1: S42-66. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1255908/ Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). Alcohol use by youth and adolescents: a pediatric concern. Pediatrics. 2010; 125(5): 1078-1087. Available at: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/125/5/1078.abstract Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

American Psychiatric Association (APA). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. American Psychiatric Association. 5th ed. 2013; 5th ed.: . Available at: https://www.amazon.com/Diagnostic-Statistical-Manual-Mental-Disorders/dp/0890425558/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1492003452&sr=1-1&keywords=dsm+5 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). Drug Testing As A Component Of Addiction Treatment and Monitoring Programs and in Other Clinical Settings. ASAM.org. 2010. Available at: https://www.asam.org/advocacy/find-a-policy-statement/view-policy-statement/public-policy-statements/2011/12/15/drug-testing-as-a-component-of-addiction-treatment-and-monitoring-programs-and-in-other-clinical-settings Accessed on: 2013-12-31.

American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM). The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Use of Medications in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use. American Society of Addiction Medicine. June 1, 2015. Available at: http://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/practice-support/guidelines-and-consensus-docs/asam-national-practice-guideline-supplement1b630f9472bc604ca5b7ff000030b21a.pdf?sfvrsn=0 Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

Arfken CL, Johanson CE, di Menza S, Schuster CR. Expanding treatment capacity for opioid dependence with office-based treatment with buprenorphine: National surveys of physicians. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2010; 39(2): 96-104. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20598829 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

ASAM . Advancing access to addiction medications . Advancing access to addiction medications: Implications for opioid addiction treatment . 2013. Available at: http://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/advocacy/aaam_implications-for-opioid-addiction-treatment_final Accessed on: 2015-05-29.

ASAM Board of Directors. ASAM Public Policy Statement: Definition of Addiction. American Society of Addiction Medicine Website. 2011. Available at: http://www.asam.org/for-the-public/definition-of-addiction Accessed on: 2013-12-14.

ASAM. Summary of the Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act. ASAM Advocacy. 2016. Available at: https://www.asam.org/advocacy/issues/opioids/summary-of-the-comprehensive-addiction-and-recovery-act Accessed on: 2016-09-19.

Association of State and Territorial Health Officials (ASTHO). Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome: How States Can Help Advance the Knowledge Base for Primary Prevention and Best Practices of Care. ASTHO. 2014. Available at: http://www.astho.org/Prevention/NAS-Neonatal-Abstinence-Report/ Accessed on: 2014-09-17.

Babor T, Higgins-Biddle JC, Saunders JB, Monteiro MG. AUDIT: The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: guidelines for use in primary care. World Health Organization: Department of Mental Health and Substance Dependence. Second Edition. 2001. Available at: http://www.talkingalcohol.com/files/pdfs/WHO_audit.pdf Accessed on: 2014-09-21.

Baca CT, Yahne CE. Smoking cessation during substance abuse treatment: what you need to know. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2009; 36(2): 205-19. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18715746 Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Back SE , Payne RL , Simpson AN . Gender and prescription opioids: findings from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Addict Behav. 2010; 35: 1001-7. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20598809 Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Belbuca. Belbuca HPC important safety information. www.belbuca.com. 2015. Available at: https://www.belbuca.com/pdf/Belbuca%20HCP%20ISI%20BL-03965.pdf Accessed on: 2016-02-19.

BioDelivery Sciences International . Bunavail prescribing information . BDSI. 2014. Available at: http://www.bdsi.com/siteres.aspx?resid=5a738443-a797-41cd-a39a-a8deb2a4a585 Accessed on: 2014-10-06.

BioDelivery Sciences International. Bunavail package insert. Highlights of prescribing information. BiodeliverySciences.com. 2014; 6/2014: 1-27. Available at: http://www.bdsi.com/siteres.aspx?resid=5a738443-a797-41cd-a39a-a8deb2a4a585 Accessed on: 2015-03-03.

Biodelivery sciences receives FDA approval for BunavailTM (buprenorphine and naloxone) buccal film for the maintenance of treatment of opioid dependence. Biodelivery Sciences Website. 2014; September 4: . Available at: http://bdsi.investorroom.com/2014-06-06-BioDelivery-Sciences-Receives-FDA-Approval-for-BUNAVAIL-buprenorphine-and-naloxone-Buccal-Film-for-the-Maintenance-Treatment-of-Opioid-Dependence Accessed on: 2014-09-11.

Birnbaum HG , White AG, Schiller M . Societal costs of prescription opioid abuse, dependence, and misuse in the United States.. Pain Med . 2011; 4: 657-67. Available at: http://www.asam.org/docs/advocacy/societal-costs-of-prescription-opioid-abuse-dependence-and-misuse-in-the-united-states.pdf Accessed on: 2014-11-07.

Bliesener N, Albrecht S, Schwager A, et al.. Plasma testosterone and sexual function in men receiving buprenorphine maintenance for opioid dependence. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005; 90(1): 203. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15483091 Accessed on: 2016-04-26.

Blow FC. Special issues in treatment: old adults. In: Graham AW, Schultz TK, May-Smith MF, Ries RK, Wilford BB, eds. Principles of Addiction Medicine, 3rd ed. Chevy Chase, Md: American Society of Addiction Medicine. 2003. Available at: https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/principles-of-addiction-medicine-american-society-american-society-of-addiction-medicine/1015772450?ean=9781880425084 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Blueshift Research. Camurus and Inpior Set to Significantly Sway the Opioid Abuse Treatment Market . Blueshift Research Report. 2017. Accessed on: 2017-03-21.

BMJ. Benzodiazepine overdose. BMJ Best Practice, BMJ Publishing Group Limited. 2017. Available at: http://bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/monograph/343/treatment/step-by-step.html Accessed on: 2017-04-18.

Borg L, Kreek MJ. The pharmacology of opioids. In: Graham AW, Schultz TK, Mayo-Smith MF, Ries RK, Wilford BB, eds. Principles of Addiction Medicine. 3rd ed. Chevy Chase, Md: American Society of Addiction Medicine. 2003; 3: . Available at: https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/principles-of-addiction-medicine-american-society-american-society-of-addiction-medicine/1015772450?ean=9781880425084 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Brady KT, Myrick H, Sonne S. Comorbid addiction and affective disorders. In: Graham AW, Schultz TK, eds. Principles of Addiction Medicine, Second Edition. Chevy Chase, Md: American Society of Addiction Medicine. 1998. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2851027/ Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Brands B, Blake J, Sproule B, et al. Prescription opioid abuse in patients presenting for methadone maintenance treatment. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004; 73(2): 199-207. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14725960 Accessed on: 2014-01-08.

Brown RL, Leonard T, Saunders LA, Papasouliotis O. The prevalence and detection of substance use disorder among inpatients ages 18 to 49: an opportunity for prevention. Preventive Medicine. 1998; 27: 101-110. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9465360 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Bruce RD. Methadone as HIV prevention: high volume methadone sites to decrease HIV incidence rates in resource limited settings. International Journal of Drug Policy . 2010; 21: 122-124. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19931444 Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Burch, K. Injectable Buprenorphine Moves Closer To FDA Approval. theFix. 2017; 1/27/`7: . Available at: https://www.thefix.com/injectable-buprenorphine-moves-closer-fda-approval Accessed on: 2017-03-21.

CADCA. Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act (CARA). CADCA.org. 2016. Available at: http://www.cadca.org/comprehensive-addiction-and-recovery-act-caraAccessed on: 2016-09-19.

Campbell AN, Nunes EV, Matthews AG, et al. Internet-delivered treatment for substance abuse: a multisite randomized controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry. 2014; 171: 683-690. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4079279/ Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Casadonte PP. PCSS Guidance: Buprenorphine Induction. Physician Clinical Support System Website. 2009. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/PCSS-MATGuidanceBuprenorphineInduction.Casadonte.pdf Accessed on: 2014-02-18.

CDC. Opioid Data Analysis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2016. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/analysis.html Accessed on: 2017-03-27.

CDC. Prescription Drug Overdose Data. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control . 2015. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/overdose.html Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

CDC. Understanding the epidemic. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, pision of Unintentional Injury Prevention. 2017. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/epidemic/index.html Accessed on: 2018-04-10.

CDC. Vital Signs: Overdoses of prescription opioid pain relievers – United States, 1999-2008. MMWR. 2011; 60(43): 1487-92. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6043a4.htm Accessed on: 2015-04-27.

Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. Key Substance Use and Mental Health Indicators in the United States: Results from the 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Retrieved from http://www.samhsa.gov/data/. 2016; HHS Publication No. SMA 16-4984, NSDUH Series H-51: . Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-DetTabs-2015/NSDUH-DetTabs-2015/NSDUH-DetTabs-2015.pdf Accessed on: 2017-07-14.

Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Opioids drive continued increase in drug overdose deaths [Press Release]. cdc.gov. 2013. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2013/p0220_drug_overdose_deaths.html Accessed on: 2014-01-17.

Chen MC, Beebe K. A randomized trial of Probuphine implants in adults stabilized on sublingual buprenorphine. American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM) Annual Meeting. 2016. Available at: https://braeburnpharmaceuticals.com/probuphine-phase-iii-data-presented-at-american-society-of-addiction-medicine-asam-annual-meeting/

Chiang CN, Hawks RL. Pharmacokinetics of the combination tablet of buprenorphine and naloxone. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003; 70(suppl 2): S39-S47.

Chou R, Fanciullo GJ, Fine PG, et al. Clinical guidelines for the use of chronic opioid therapy for chronic non-cancer pain. J of Pain. 2009; 10(2): 113-130. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19187889 Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Christo PJ, Manchikanti L, Ruan X, Bottros M, Hansen H, Solanki DR, Jordan AE, Colson J. Urine Drug Testing In Chronic Pain. Pain Physician . 2011; 14: 123-143. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21412368 Accessed on: 2014-01-02.

Chychula NM, Sciamanna C. Help substance abusers attain and sustain abstinence. Nurse Pract. 2002; 27(11): 30-47. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12444364 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Cicero JT, Dart RC, Inciardi JA, Woody GE, Schnoll S, Munoz A. The Development of a Comprehensive Risk-Management Program for Prescription Opioid Analgesics: Researched Abuse, persion, and Addiction-Related Surveillance (RADARS). Pain Medicine. 2007; 8(2): 157-169. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17305687 Accessed on: 2014-02-18.

Cicero TJ, Surratt HL, Inciardi J. Use and misuse of buprenorphine in the management of opioid addiction. J Opioid Manag. 2007; 3(6): 302-8. Available at: http://www.naddi.org/aws/NADDI/asset_manager/get_file/2740 Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Cirone S. Brief Intervention: Adolescent with Prescription Opioid Use Disorder. YouTube. 2013. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OAKRz9TiJUEAccessed on: 2015-04-27.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Assessing pain with PQRSTU. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/cKR27q9g-_o Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Motivational Interviewing. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/4_q9WPTnO4k Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Clinical Tools, Inc.. Motivational Interviewing: Managing Challenging Patient Behavior. Clinical Tools, Inc.. 2016. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/embed/4_q9WPTnO4k Accessed on: 2016-01-08.

Conigliaro J, Reyes CD, Parran TV, Schulz JE. Principles of screening and early intervention. In: Graham AW, Schultz TK, Mayo-Smith MF, Ries RK, Wilford BB, eds. Principles of Addiction Medicine, Third Edition. Chevy Chase, Md: American Society of Addiction Medicine. 2003. Available at: https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/principles-of-addiction-medicine-american-society-american-society-of-addiction-medicine/1015772450?ean=9781880425084Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Czerkes M. Buprenorphine Versus Methadone Treatment for Opiate Addiction in Pregnancy: An Evaluation of Neonatal Outcomes. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Annual Clinical Meeting. 2010.

Dahan A, Yassen A, Romberg R, et al. Buprenorphine induces ceiling in respiratory depression but not in analgesia. Br J Anaesth. 2006; 96(5): 627-32. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16547090 Accessed on: 2014-09-11.

Daitch D, Daitch J, Novinson D, et al. Conversion from high-dose full-opioid agonists to sublingual buprenorphine reduces pain scores and improves quality of life for chronic pain patients. . Pain Med. 2014; 15(12): 2087-94. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25220043 Accessed on: 2016-06-04.

Darke S, Ross J. Suicide among heroin users: rates, risk factors and methods. Addiction. 2002; 97(11): 1383-1394.

Darnell B, Stieg RL. Boots on the Ground in Opioid Tapering: A Low-Cost, Medically Supervised Psychobehavioral Prescription Opioid Taper Program for Community-Dwelling Patients. American Academy of Pain Medicine 2016 Annual Meeting. 2016. Available at: http://www.painmed.org/2016posters/abstract-163/Accessed on: 2016-03-25.

Dart R. Evaluation of ADFs Using RADARS System Data. RADARS System. 2011. Available at: http://www.thblack.com/links/RSD/RADARS(R)%20System_2011%20Annual%20Meeting%20Summary.pdf Accessed on: 2013-04-30.

Dart RC. Opioid Abuse, Misuse, and persion: Strategies for Prevention. Researched Abuse, persion and Addiction-Related Surveillance (RADARS). American Academy of Pain Medicine Meeting. 2009. Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Dasgupta N. RADARS System Subutex & Suboxone: How Much is Prescribed vs. Abuse/persion Reports. SAMHSA Meeting on Buprenorphine. 2010. Available at: http://docs.clinicaltools.com/pdf/Buppractice/HowMuchIsPrescribed.pdf Accessed on: 2013-04-30.

Davis MP. Twelve reasons for considering buprenorphine as a frontline analgesic in the management of pain. SupportiveOncology.net. 2012. Available at: http://xyane.com/upload/forum/201342423942.pdf Accessed on: 2016-06-02.

De Vries TJ, Shippenberg TS. Neural systems underlying opiate addiction. J Neurosci. 2002; 22(9): 3321-3325. Available at: http://www.jneurosci.org/content/22/9/3321.long Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Degenhardt L , Bucello C , Mathers B. Mortality among regular or dependent users of heroin and other opioids: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Addiction . 2011; 106: 32-51. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03140.x/abstract Accessed on: 2015-04-23.

Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). Mandatory guidelines for federal workplace drug testing programs. Federal Register. 2008; 73(228): 71858-71907. Available at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2008-11-25/html/E8-26726.htm Accessed on: 2014-01-02.

Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Defense. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders Stabilization Pocket Card . VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders. 2015. Available at: http://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/MH/sud/VADoDSUDCPGPocketCardStabilizationFinal.pdf Accessed on: 2017-02-21.

Donaher PA, Welsh C. Managing opioid addiction with buprenorphine. American Family Physician. 2006; 73(9): 1573-8. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2006/0501/p1573.html Accessed on: 2013-10-08.

Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain — United States, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016; ePub: March 2016: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1er. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/rr/rr6501e1.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-16.

Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN). Highlights of the 2011 Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) Findings on Drug-Related Emergency Department Visits. The Dawn Report. 2013; 127: . Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/2k13/DAWN127/sr127-DAWN-highlights.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). Buprenorphine . Drug Enforcement Administration Office of persion Control. 2013. Available at: https://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/drug_chem_info/buprenorphine.pdf Accessed on: 2014-04-10.

Drug Enforcement Administration, Justice. § 1301.75 Physical security controls for practitioners. DEA. 2005. Available at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2009-title21-vol9/pdf/CFR-2009-title21-vol9-sec1301-76.pdf Accessed on: 2010-06-10.

Drug Enforcement Administration. Code of Federal Regulations: Section 1304.03 Maintenance of records and inventories. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Office of persion Control. 2000. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/21cfr/cfr/1304/1304_04.htm Accessed on: 2011-07-03.

Drug Enforcement Administration. State Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs. U.S. Department of Justice. 2011. Available at: http://www.deapersion.usdoj.gov/faq/rx_monitor.htm

Drugs.com. Buprenorphine/Naloxone. Drugs.com. Copyright 1996-2017 Cerner Multum, Inc. Version: 8.01.. Revision Date: 2017-02-06, 10:16:30 AM. Available at: https://www.drugs.com/price-guide/buprenorphine-naloxone Accessed on: 2017-02-22.

Drugs.com. Doxazosin. Drugs.com. Copyright 1996-2017 Cerner Multum, Inc. Version: 8.01.. Revision Date: 2015-11-16, 3:09:59 PM. Available at: https://www.drugs.com/doxazosin.html Accessed on: 2017-01-03.

Drugs.com. Naloxone. FDA Professional Drug Information. Copyright 2000-2015; Last updated Jan-Feb, 2015. Available at: http://www.drugs.com/pro/naloxone.html Accessed on: 2015-02-09.

Dunn KE, Sigmon SC, Strain EC, et al.. The association between outpatient buprenorphine detoxification duration and clinical treatment outcomes: a review. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011; 119(1-2): 1-9. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21741781 Accessed on: 2014-10-03.

Dunn KM, Saunders KW, Rutter CM, et. al. Opioid prescriptions for chronic pain and overdose: a cohort study. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2010; 152(2): 85-92. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3000551/ Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Durand F, Valla D. Assessment of prognosis of cirrhosis. Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 2008; 28(1): 110-122. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18293281 Accessed on: 2016-03-03.

E Papastavrou , A Farmakas, G Karayiannis, E Kotrotsiou. Co morbidity of Post-Traumatic-Stress Disorders and Substance Use Disorder. Health Science Journal. 2011; 5(2): 107-17. Available at: http://www.hsj.gr/medicine/co-morbidity-of-posttraumaticstress-disorders-and-substance-use-disorder.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Edlund MJ, Martin BC, Russo JE, et al.. The role of opioid prescription in incident opioid abuse and dependence among inpiduals with chronic noncancer pain: the role of opioid prescription. Clin J Pain. 2014; 30(7): 557-64. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24281273 Accessed on: 2014-10-07.

Egan JE, Casadonte P, Gartenmann T, Martin J, McCance-Katz EF, Netherland J, Renner JA, Weiss L, Saxon AJ, Fiellin DA. The Physician Clinical Support System-Buprenorphine (PCSS-B): a novel project to expand/improve buprenorphine treatment. J Gen Intern Med. 2010; 25(9): 936-41. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2917666/ Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Eggleston W, Clark KH, Marraffa JM. Loperamide abuse associated with cardiac dysrhythmia and death. Annals of Emergency Medicine. 2016; DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.annemergmed.2016.03.047: . Available at: http://www.annemergmed.com/article/S0196-0644(16)30052-X/fulltext Accessed on: 2016-05-04.

Erdemoglu AK, Koc R. Brief Pain Inventory score identifying and discriminating neuropathic and nociceptive pain.. Acta Neurol Scand. 2013; 128(5): 351-8. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23594114 Accessed on: 2016-04-12.

Farmer CM, Lindsay D, Williams J, Ayers A, Schuster J, Cilia A, Flaherty MT, Mandell T, Gordon AJ, Stein BD. Practice Guidance for Buprenorphine for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorders: Results of an Expert Panel Process. Substance Abuse Journal. 2015; 36(2): 209-216. Accessed on: 2015-10-06.

Farmer CM, Lindsay D, Williams J, et al. Practice Guidelines for Burprenorphine for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorders: Results of an Expert Panel Process. Substance Abuse Journal. 2015; 36(2): . Available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08897077.2015.1012613?redirect=1#.VgWAsMtVhBc Accessed on: 2015-09-25.

Farney RJ, McDonald AM, Boyle KM, Snow GL, Nuttall RT, Coudreaut MF, Wander TJ, Walker JM. Sleep disordered breathing in patients receiving therapy with buprenorphine/naloxone. Eur Respir. 2013; 42: 394-403. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23100497 Accessed on: 2014-01-27.

FDA. CLIA – Clinical laboratory improvement amendments – currently waived analytes. FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2016. Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfClia/analyteswaived.cfm Accessed on: 2016-08-10.

FDA. FDA announces enhanced warnings for immediate-release opioid pain medications related to risks of misuse, abuse, addiction, overdose and death. FDA News Release. March 22, 2016. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm491739.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-25.

FDA. FDA announces safety labeling changes and postmarket study requirements for extended-release and long-acting opioid analgesics. FDA Website. 2013. Available at: https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112130229/http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm367726.htm Accessed on: 2014-08-01.

FDA. FDA approves first buprenorphine implant for treatment of opioid dependence. FDA News & Events. 2016; May 26, 2016: . Available at: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm503719.htm?source=govdelivery&utm_medium=email&utm_source=govdelivery Accessed on: 2016-05-27.

FDA. FDA approves first once-monthly buprenorphine injection, a medication-assisted treatment option for opioid use disorder. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, News and Events. November 30, 2017. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm587312.htm?utm_campaign=FDA%20approves%20new%20medication-assisted%20treatment%20option%20for%20opioid%20use%20disorder&utm_medium=email&utm_source=Eloqua Accessed on: 2017-12-01.

FDA. FDA approves the first non-opioid treatment for management of opioid withdrawal symptoms in adults. U.S. FDA News Release. 2018. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm607884.htm Accessed on: 2018-05-20.

FDA. FDA Drug Safety Communication: FDA warns about several safety issues with opioid pain medicines; requires label changes . FDA U.S. Food & Drug Administration. 3/22/2016. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm489676.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-24.

FDA. Medication Guide: Butrans™ CIII (buprenorphine) Transdermal System. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2010. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/UCM220880.pdf

FDA. Medication Guide: Zubsolv Sublingual Tablet (CIII). FDA. 2013. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/UCM362203.pdf Accessed on: 2014-10-23.

Federation of State Medical Boards of the United States. Model policy for the use of controlled substances for the treatment of pain. Federation of State Medical Boards of the United States, Inc. 2013 updated, 2004. Available at: http://www.painpolicy.wisc.edu/sites/www.painpolicy.wisc.edu/files/FSMB_pain_policy_july2013.pdf Accessed on: 2015-12-04.

Fiellin D. Treatment of acute pain in patients receiving buprenorphine/naloxone. Physician Clinical Support System (PCSS) Clinical Guidance. 2005. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/PCSS-MATGuidanceTreatmentOfAcutePainInPatientsReceivingBup.Fiellin.pdf Accessed on: 2015-12-02.

Fiellin D. Treatment of Acute Pain in Patients Receiving Buprenorphine/Naloxone. Providers’ Clinical Support System. 2014. Available at: http://pcssmat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/PCSS-MATGuidanceTreatmentOfAcutePainInPatientsReceivingBup.Fiellin.pdf Accessed on: 2015-12-04.

Fiellin DA, Rosenheck RA, Kosten TR. Office-based treatment for opioid dependence: reaching new patient populations. Am J Psychiatry. 2001; 158(8): 1200-1204. Available at: http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/appi.ajp.158.8.1200 Accessed on: 2014-11-26.

Fiellin DA, Schottenfeld RS, Cutter CJ, et al. Primary care-based buprenorphine taper vs maintenance therapy for prescription opioid dependence: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Internal Medicine. 2014; 174(12): 1947-1954. Available at: http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1916910 Accessed on: 2016-03-02.

Finch JW, Kamien JB, Amass L. Two-year experience with buprenorphine-naloxone (Suboxone) for maintenance treatment of opioid dependence within a private practice setting.. Journal of Addiction Medicine. 2014; 1(2): 104-110. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21768942 Accessed on: 2016-03-02.

Fishbain DA, Cole B, Lewis J, Rosomoff HL, Rosomoff RS. What percentage of chronic nonmalignant pain patients exposed to chronic opioid analgesic therapy develop abuse/addiction and/or aberrant drug-related behaviors? A structured evidence-based review. Pain Medicine. 2008; 9(4): 444-459. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18489635 Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Fishman MJ, Mee-Lee D, Shulman GD, et al. Supplement to the ASAM Patient Placement Criteriaon the Management of Alcohol Use Disorders. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Inc.. 2010. Available at: http://www.asam.org/publications/the-asam-criteria Accessed on: 2013-12-14.

Fishman MJ, Wu LT, Woody GE. Buprenorphine for Prescription Opioid Addiction in a Patient With Depression and Alcohol Dependence . Am J Psychiatry. 2011; 168(7): 675–679. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3178807/ Accessed on: 2013-10-10.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Appropriate Use Checklist. btodrems.com. 2013. Available at: https://www.btodrems.com/Portal/Content%20Library/Appropriate%20Use%20Checklist.pdf Accessed on: 2013-10-09.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Buprenorphine Drug Label. NDA 20-732, NDA 20-733. 2010. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/dow