Address Opioid Addiction

1. SAMHSA/CSAT. Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. 2004. PMID: 22514846.
2. FSMB. Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office. FSMB Website. 2013.
3. ASAM. The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder 2020 Focused Update. 2020.
4. SAMHSA. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Winter 2016.
5. Mackey K, Veazie S, Anderson J, Bourne D, Peterson K. Barriers and Facilitators to the Use of Medications for Opioid Use Disorder: A Rapid Review. J Gen Intern Med. December 2020;35(Suppl 3):954-963. doi:10.1007/s11606-020-06257-4. PMCID: PMC7728943. PMID: 33145687.
6. ASAM. 2020 National Practice Guideline. Am Soc Addict Med. 2020.
7. Öhlin L, Fridell M, Nyhlén A. Buprenorphine maintenance program with contracted work/education and low tolerance for non-prescribed drug use: a cohort study of outcome for women and men after seven years. BMC Psychiatry. March 24, 2015;15(56).
8. Chou R, Fanciullo GJ, Fine PG, et al. Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Chronic Opioid Therapy in Chronic Noncancer Pain. J Pain Off J Am Pain Soc. February 2009;10(2):113-130. doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2008.10.008. PMCID: PMC4043401. PMID: 19187889.
9. CDC. Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs (PDMPs) | Drug Overdose. June 10, 2020.
10. Dowell D, Haegerich T, Chou R. CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain — United States, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016;65(1):1-49. doi:10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1er.
11. U.S. House of Representatives. Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act of 2016. docs.house.gov. 2016

Providers need to provide structure for patients on buprenorphine for opioid use disorder because it improves patient outcomes: Treatment agreements describing the roles of the practitioner and the patient are recommended in guidelines for buprenorphine treatment, including Chapter 4 of SAMHSA’s TIP 40 on Treatment Protocols,¹ FSMB Model Policy², and later guidelines ASAM (2020)³, and SAMHSA (2016)⁴.

Knowledge gaps are among the main barriers associated with low utilization of OUD medications, and this module aims to help address those gaps.⁵

References

1. SAMHSA/CSAT. Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. 2004. PMID: 22514846.
2. FSMB. Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office. FSMB Website. 2013.
3. ASAM. The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder 2020 Focused Update. 2020.
4. SAMHSA. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Winter 2016.
5. Mackey K, Veazie S, Anderson J, Bourne D, Peterson K. Barriers and Facilitators to the Use of Medications for Opioid Use Disorder: A Rapid Review. J Gen Intern Med. December 2020;35(Suppl 3):954-963. doi:10.1007/s11606-020-06257-4. PMCID: PMC7728943. PMID: 33145687.

Providers need to learn how to screen patients for opioid use disorder and risk and to make the diagnosis. The U. S. Preventive Services Task Force guidelines recommend screening all patients over 18 for drug use by asking questions about unhealthy drug use.¹

Treatment starts with proper diagnosis of opioid use disorder followed by assessment of the appropriateness of office-based buprenorphine treatment. Original guidelines, such as SAMHSA’s TIP 40, Chapter 3, on Patient Assessment, as well as more recent guidelines, such as ASAM’s 2020 National Practice Guideline For the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder, underscore the importance of providers being skilled in the diagnosis of opioid use disorder^2–4. The FSMB Model policy also describes diagnosis of opioid use disorder as a critical patient assessment⁵.

Knowledge gaps are among the main barriers associated with low utilization of OUD medications, and this module aims to help address those gaps.6

References

1. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Unhealthy Drug Use: Screening. June 9, 2020.
2. SAMHSA/CSAT. Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. 2004. PMID: 22514846.
3. SAMHSA. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Winter 2016.
4. ASAM. The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder 2020 Focused Update. 2020.
5. FSMB. Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office. FSMB Website. 2013.
6. Mackey K, Veazie S, Anderson J, Bourne D, Peterson K. Barriers and Facilitators to the Use of Medications for Opioid Use Disorder: A Rapid Review. J Gen Intern Med. December 2020;35(Suppl 3):954-963. doi:10.1007/s11606-020-06257-4. PMCID: PMC7728943. PMID: 33145687.

Maintenance and Discontinuation Practice Gaps

• Providers need to be able to maintain patients on buprenorphine, change treatment as needed, and know how to taper buprenorphine for patients who wish to stop treatment. Clinic visits should still occur during the maintenance period, but may be less frequent.
• Patients should be maintained at a comfortable dose and feel minimal cravings and side effects. Some patients can taper off of buprenorphine after a year or two. Many need to continue taking it for years¹. Because of a high relapse rate, if buprenorphine is discontinued², many patients need to be maintained on buprenorphine indefinitely^3,4.
• Chapter 4 of TIP 40 on Treatment Protocols, described the maintenance process.⁵ This has been updated and clarified in the FSMB Model policy⁶, and updated again in later guidelines ASAM (2020)⁴ and SAMHSA (2016)³.
• Knowledge gaps are among the main barriers associated with low utilization of OUD medications, and this module aims to help address those gaps.⁷

Practice Gap References

1. Weiss R, Potter J, Griffin M, et al. Long-term outcomes from the National Drug Abuse Treatment Clinical Trials Network Prescription Opioid Addiction Treatment Study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015. PMCID: PMC4407806. PMID: 25818060.
2. Ling W, Hillhouse M, Domier C, et al. Buprenorphine Tapering Schedule and Illicit Opioid Use. Addiction. 2009;104(2):256-265. PMCID: PMC3150159. PMID: 19149822.
3. SAMHSA. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Winter 2016.
4. ASAM. The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder 2020 Focused Update. 2020.
5. SAMHSA/CSAT. Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. 2004. PMID: 22514846.
6. FSMB. Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office. FSMB Website. 2013.
7. Mackey K, Veazie S, Anderson J, Bourne D, Peterson K. Barriers and Facilitators to the Use of Medications for Opioid Use Disorder: A Rapid Review. J Gen Intern Med. December 2020;35(Suppl 3):954-963. doi:10.1007/s11606-020-06257-4. PMCID: PMC7728943. PMID: 33145687.

Induction – Buprenorphine Treatment Practice Gaps

Providers need to be able to prepare patients to start buprenorphine therapy, titrate the dose, and establish a final dose. Chapter 4 of TIP 40¹, later guidelines^2,3, and the FSMB Model policy⁴ describe this process in detail.

The FDA has produced an Appropriate Use checklist to follow for each patient that helps you make sure you follow the REMS guidelines for the medication with each patient.⁵ Items in the checklist pertaining to induction are explained in this training.

Knowledge gaps are among the main barriers associated with low utilization of OUD medications and this module aims to help address those gaps.⁶

References
1. SAMHSA/CSAT. Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. 2004. PMID: 22514846.
2. SAMHSA. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Winter 2016.
3. ASAM. The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder 2020 Focused Update. 2020.
4. FSMB. Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office. FSMB Website. 2013.
5. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Appropriate Use Checklist. http://btodrems.com/. 2020.
6. Mackey K, Veazie S, Anderson J, Bourne D, Peterson K. Barriers and Facilitators to the Use of Medications for Opioid Use Disorder: A Rapid Review. J Gen Intern Med. December 2020;35(Suppl 3):954-963. doi:10.1007/s11606-020-06257-4. PMCID: PMC7728943. PMID: 33145687.

Providers need to be able to assess patients with opioid use disorder for appropriateness for office-based opioid treatment. Original guidelines in SAMHSA’s TIP 40, Chapter 3 on Patient Assessment (2004) as well as recent guidelines for buprenorphine treatment by SAMHSA (2016) and ASAM (2020), focus on patient assessment in the treatment of opioid use disorder^1–3. Knowledge gaps are among the main barriers associated with low utilization of OUD medications and this module aims to help address those gaps.⁴ The FSMB Model policy (2013) describes 6 critical aspects of patient assessment.

References

1. SAMHSA/CSAT. Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. 2004. PMID: 22514846.
2. ASAM. The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder 2020 Focused Update. 2020.
3. SAMHSA. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Winter 2016.
4. Mackey K, Veazie S, Anderson J, Bourne D, Peterson K. Barriers and Facilitators to the Use of Medications for Opioid Use Disorder: A Rapid Review. J Gen Intern Med. December 2020;35(Suppl 3):954-963. doi:10.1007/s11606-020-06257-4. PMCID: PMC7728943. PMID: 33145687.
5. FSMB. Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office. FSMB Website. 2013.
6. USDHHS. Medication Assisted Treatment for Opioid Use Disorders Reporting Requirements. 2016.
7. Farmer CM, Lindsay D, Williams J, et al. Practice Guidance for Buprenorphine for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorders: Results of an Expert Panel Process. Subst Abuse. 2015;36(2):209-216. doi:10.1080/08897077.2015.1012613. PMCID: PMC4470850. PMID: 25844527.
8. SAMHSA. Screening, Brief Intervention, and Referral to Treatment (SBIRT). 2014.

Practice Gaps

Despite demonstrated effectiveness of buprenorphine (SAMHSA, 2020), only around 95,000 providers prescribe buprenorphine for office-based treatment of opioid use disorder, which is a small percentage considering that the pool of potential prescribers is well over a million (SAMHSA, 2021). Buprenorphine treatment has a protocol for successful outcomes for treatment of opioid use disorder and to minimize risks of overdose, death, and diversion; providers need competence in this protocol. Understanding of clinical protocol and how to apply it will help address this competence need. Skills in communication and monitoring are also needed to reduce the frequency of problematic behaviors, such as diversion or use of illicit drugs (ASAM, 2020).

Knowledge gaps are among the main barriers associated with low utilization of OUD medications and this module aims to help address those gaps (Mackey et al., 2020).

References

ASAM. 2020 National Practice Guideline. Am Soc Addict Med. 2020.

Mackey K, Veazie S, Anderson J, Bourne D, Peterson K. Barriers and Facilitators to the Use of Medications for Opioid Use Disorder: A Rapid Review. J Gen Intern Med. December 2020;35(Suppl 3):954-963. doi:10.1007/s11606-020-06257-4. PMCID: PMC7728943. PMID: 33145687.

SAMHSA. Buprenorphine. October 7, 2020.

SAMHSA. Practitioner and Program Data. SAMHSA.gov. 2021.

Providers need to learn how to screen patients for opioid use disorder and risk and to make the diagnosis. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force guidelines recommend screening all patients over 18 for drug use by asking questions about unhealthy drug use.¹

Treatment starts with proper diagnosis of opioid use disorder followed by assessment of the appropriateness of office-based buprenorphine treatment. Guidelines, such as ASAM’s (2020), SAMHSA’S (2016) ^2,3 underscore the importance of providers being skilled in

1. the diagnosis of opioid use disorder
2. patient assessment to determine their appropriateness for the treatment of opioid use disorder
3. prepare patients to start buprenorphine therapy, titrate the dose, and establish a final dose
4. monitor patients as they are maintained on buprenorphine, change treatment as needed

Knowledge gaps are among the main barriers associated with low utilization of OUD medications and this module aims to help address those gaps.⁵

References

1. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Unhealthy Drug Use: Screening. June 9, 2020.
2. SAMHSA. Sublingual and Transmucosal Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder: Review and Update. Winter 2016.
3. ASAM. The ASAM National Practice Guideline For the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder 2020 Focused Update. 2020.
4. FSMB. Model Policy on DATA 2000 and Treatment of Opioid Addiction in the Medical Office. FSMB Website. 2013.
5. Mackey K, Veazie S, Anderson J, Bourne D, Peterson K. Barriers and Facilitators to the Use of Medications for Opioid Use Disorder: A Rapid Review. J Gen Intern Med. December 2020;35(Suppl 3):954-963. doi:10.1007/s11606-020-06257-4. PMCID: PMC7728943. PMID: 33145687.
6. SAMHSA/CSAT. Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. 2004. PMID: 22514846.
7. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Appropriate Use Checklist. http://btodrems.com/. 2020.
8. Weiss R, Potter J, Griffin M, et al. Long-term outcomes from the National Drug Abuse Treatment Clinical Trials Network Prescription Opioid Addiction Treatment Study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015. PMCID: PMC4407806. PMID: 25818060.
9. Ling W, Hillhouse M, Domier C, et al. Buprenorphine Tapering Schedule and Illicit Opioid Use. Addiction. 2009;104(2):256-265. PMCID: PMC3150159. PMID: 19149822.

Professional practice gaps exist when there is a disparity between educational needs and the ideal or desired level of knowledge, competence, and performance. Only around 6% of U.S. physicians are waivered to prescribe buprenorphine for office-based treatment of opioid use disorder (SAMHSA, 2017). Physicians are likely to encounter patients having this disorder due to the size of the opioid epidemic: 11.8 million people aged 12 or older engage in misuse of pain relievers (SAMHSA, 2017). Many people who need treatment are still not receiving it (SAMHSA, 2016). Federal law requires physicians to complete an 8-hour training in order to prescribe buprenorphine (CARA, 2016; DATA, 2000). Providing physician this training will prepare them to treat the many patients having opioid use disorder.

Buprenorphine is a safe and effective treatment for opioid use disorder for which 8 hours of training by an approved organization is required by law in order to prescribe it (SAMHSA, 2004; SAMHSA, 2016). Providing information on all aspects of buprenorphine treatment will help address this knowledge need. Moreover, buprenorphine treatment has a complex protocol that must be followed for successful outcomes and to minimize risks of overdose, death, and diversion (FSMB, 2013), which validates the need for mandatory training in order to prescribe it. Understanding of clinical protocol and how to apply it will help address this competence need. Lastly, despite the demonstrated effectiveness of buprenorphine, a relatively small percentage (3%) of U.S. physicians are trained and credentialed to prescribe it (NAABT, 2017). Experience with interactive case scenarios helps address the performance need of translating competence in following the protocol into actual practice.

Practice Gap References

AAPI. Use of Opioids for the Treatment of Chronic Pain, A statement from the American Academy of Pain Medicine. The American Academy of Chronic Pain. 2013. Available at: http://www.painmed.org/files/use-of-opioids-for-the-treatment-of-chronic-pain.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Adams et al. Development of a self-report screening instrument for assessing potential opioid medication misuse in chronic pain patients. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2004; 27: 440-459. Available at: http://www.jpsmjournal.com/article/S0885-3924(04)00101-0/abstract Accessed 02/14/2019.

Adams LL, Gatchel RJ, Robinson RC, et al. Development of a self-report screening instrument for assessing potential opioid medication misuse in chronic pain patients. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2004; 27: 440-459. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15120773 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Agency Medical Directors’ Group. Interagency Guideline on Opioid Dosing for Chronic Non-cancer Pain: An educational aid to improve care and safety with opioid therapy. Washington State Agency Medical Directors Group. 2010. Available at: http://www.agencymeddirectors.wa.gov/Files/OpioidGdline.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Aggarwal A, Kumar R, Sharma RC, Sharma DD. Persistent dystonia following opioid withdrawal. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry. 2011; 35(2): 640. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20685372 Accessed 02/14/2019.

AMA. Promote safe storage and disposal of opioids and all medications. AMA-ASSN.org. 2017. Available at: https://www.aafp.org/dam/AAFP/documents/patient_care/pain_management/safe-storage.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

American Academy of Pain Medicine, American Pain Society and American Society of Addiction Medicine. Definitions related to the use of opioids for the treatment of pain. 2001. Available at: https://www.asam.org/advocacy/find-a-policy-statement/view-policy-statement/public-policy-statements/2011/12/15/definitions-related-to-the-use-of-opioids-for-the-treatment-of-pain-consensus-statement Accessed 02/14/2019.

American Academy of Pain Medicine. Long-term Controlled Substances Therapy for Chronic Pain Sample Agreement. American Academy of Pain Medicine. 2001. Available at: https://www.nhms.org/sites/default/files/Pdfs/Opioid-Tx-Agreement-AAPM2001.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

American Geriatrics Society. Pharmacological management of persistent pain in older persons. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 2009; 57(8): 1331-1346. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19573219 Accessed 02/14/2019.

American Pain Foundation. Target Chronic Pain Notebook. American Pain Foundation. 2004; updated 2008. Available at: http://www.emergingsolutionsinpain.com/content/tools/apf_resources/TargetCard.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

American Psychiatric Association (APA). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. American Psychiatric Association. 5th ed. 2013. Available at: https://www.amazon.com/Diagnostic-Statistical-Manual-Mental-Disorders/dp/0890425558/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1492003452&sr=1-1&keywords=dsm+5 Accessed 02/14/2019.

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). American Psychiatric Association. 2013; 5. Available at: http://www.appi.org/products/dsm-manual-of-mental-disorders Accessed 02/14/2019.

American Psychological Association. Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9 & PHQ-2). APA.com. 2013. Available at: http://www.apa.org/pi/about/publications/caregivers/practice-settings/assessment/tools/patient-health.aspx Accessed 02/14/2019.

Antoin H, Beasley RD. Opioids for chronic noncancer pain: tailoring the therapy to fit the patient and the pain. Postgrad Med. 2004; 116(3): 37-40, 43-44. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15460088 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Avouac J, Gossec L, Dougados M. Efficacy and safety of opioids for osteoarthritis: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2007; 15(8): 957-65.

Bair MJ, Polshuck EL, Wu J, Krebs EK, Damush TM, Tu W, Kroenke K. Anxiety but not social stressors predict 12-month depression and pain severity. The Clinical Journal of Pain. 2013; 29: 95-101. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23183264 Accessed 02/14/2019.

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Benyamin R, et al. Opioid Complications and Side Effects. Pain Physician. 2008; 11: 105-120. Available at: http://www.painphysicianjournal.com Accessed 02/14/2019.

Berland, D, Rodgers P. Use of opioids for management of chronic nonterminal pain. Am Fam Physician. 2012; 86(3): 252-258. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/afp/2012/0801/p252.html Accessed 02/14/2019.

BMJ Publishing Group. Opioid overdose. http://bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/verify-user-north-american-access.html. 2011; October 27. Available at: http://bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/monograph/339/treatment/step-by-step.html Accessed 02/14/2019.

Boscarino JA, Rukstalis MR, Hoffman SN, et al. Prevalence of prescription opioid-use disorder among chronic pain patients: comparison of the DSM-5 vs. DSM-4 diagnostic criteria. J Addict Dis. 2011; 30(3): 185-94. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21745041 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Briley M, Moret C. Treatment of comorbid pain with serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors. CNS Spectr. 2008; 13(7): 22-26.

Brown KS. Integrating Risk Assessment in Opioid Prescribing for Persistent Pain Management. Integrative Pain Center, Tripler Army Medical Center. 2009. Available at: https://division-rehabpsych.squarespace.com/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Brown RL, Rounds LA. Conjoint screening questionnaires for alcohol and other drug abuse: criterion validity in a primary care practice. Wis Med J. 1995; 94: 135-40. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7778330 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Butler SF , Budman SH, Fernandez KC, et al. Cross-validation of a screener to predict opioid misuse in chronic pain patients (SOAPP-R). J Addict Med . 2010. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2712300/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

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Butler SF, Fernandez K, Benoit C, et al. Validation of the Revised Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients in Pain (SOAPP-R). J Pain. 2008; 9: 360-372.

Califano, JA et al. Under the Counter: The Diversion and Abuse of Controlled Prescription Drugs in the U.S. The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University. 2005. Available at: http://www.centeronaddiction.org/addiction-research/reports/under-the-counter-diversion-abuse-controlled-perscription-drugs Accessed 02/14/2019.

CASA. National Survey of American Attitudes on Substance Abuse XIII: Teens and Parents. National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse. 2008. Available at: http://www.centeronaddiction.org/addiction-research/reports/national-survey-american-attitudes-substance-abuse-teens-parents-2008 Accessed 02/14/2019.

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Chou R, Fanciullo G, Fine P, et al. Clinical guidelines for the use of chronic opioid therapy in chronic noncancer pain. J Pain. 2009; 10(2): 113-130. Available at: http://www.jpain.org/article/S1526-5900(08)00831-6/abstract Accessed 02/14/2019.

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CMS. Calendar Year (CY) 2016 Clinical Laboratory Fee Schedule (CLFS) Preliminary Determinations. 2016. Available at: https://www.cms.gov/Medicare/Medicare-Fee-for-Service-Payment/ClinicalLabFeeSched/Downloads/CY2017-CLFS-Codes-Prelim-Determinations.pdf Accessed 02/14/2019.

Cole, BE. Recognizing and Preventing Medication Diversion. Family Practice Management. 2001; 8(9): 37-41. Available at: http://www.aafp.org/fpm/2001/1000/p37.html Accessed 02/14/2019.

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Covidien. EXALGO(TM) Risk Evaluation & Mitigation Strategy. EXALGO(TM) Risk Evaluation & Mitigation Strategy. 2011.

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Dais J, Khosia A, Doulatram G. The successful treatment of opioid withdrawal-induced refractory muscle spasms with 5-HTP in a patient intolerant to clonidine. Pain Physician. 2015; 18: E417-E420. Available at: http://www.painphysicianjournal.com/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

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VA/DoD. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain. VA/DoC. 2003. Available at: http://www.ihs.gov/nc4/index.cfm Accessed 02/14/2019.

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Warner EA. Opioids for the Treatment of Chronic Noncancer Pain. The American Journal of Medicine. 2012; 125(12): 1155-1161. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18443640 Accessed 02/14/2019.

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Washington State Department of Health. Washington State Department of Health: Pain Management. Washington State Department of Health. 2010. Available at: http://www.doh.wa.gov/ForPublicHealthandHealthcareProviders/HealthcareProfessionsandFacilities/PainManagement Accessed 02/14/2019.

Webster LR, Fine PG. Overdose deaths demand a new paradigm for opioid rotation. Pain Med. 2012; 13(4): 571-4. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22458858 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Webster LR, Webster RM. Predicting aberrant behaviors in opioid-treated patients: Preliminary validation of the Opioid Risk Tool. Pain Medicine. 2005; 6(6): 432-442. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16336480 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Webster LR. Methadone-related deaths. Pain Med. 2011; 1(4): 211-7. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21668754 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Weissman DE, Haddox JD. Opioid pseudoaddiction—An iatrogenic syndrome. J Pain. 1989; 36(3): 363-366. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2710565 Accessed 02/14/2019.

World Health Organization (WHO). WHO’s pain relief ladder. World Health Organization: Programmes and projects: Cancer. 2010. Available at: http://www.who.int/cancer/palliative/painladder/en/ Accessed 02/14/2019.

Wu SM, Compton P, Bolus R, et al. The Addiction Behaviors Checklist: validation of a new clinician-based measure of inappropriate opioid use in chronic pain. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2006; 32: 342-351. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17000351 Accessed 02/14/2019.

Zacharoff, KL, Pujol LM, Corsini E. Managing Chronic Pain With Opioids in Primary Care. The PainEDU.org Manual. 2010; 2nd ed. Available at: http://www.bookwire.com/book/USA/Managing-Chronic-Pain-with-Opioids-in-Primary-Care-9780982529805-Zacharoff-Kevin-L-28531238 Accessed 02/14/2019.

The incidence of opioid overdose, diversion, and addiction has continued to rise (SAMHSA, 2017; CDC, 2016), suggesting that physicians are not sufficiently following evidence-based guidelines for prescribing opioids to minimize these risks. The parallel rise of the rate of opioid addiction and the number of opioid prescriptions (SAMHSA, 2013; DAWN, 2013) suggests that physicians do not follow guidelines to limit opioid prescribing. Training physicians in the guidelines for safe opioid prescribing would decrease exposure of patients with chronic pain to unnecessary risks of opioids (Dowell, et al., 2016).

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Due to the widespread extent of the opioid epidemic and patients with chronic pain (Volkow et al., 2016), physicians are seeing a high rate of relatively more challenging problems, such as opioid addiction, drug-related aberrant behavior, and diversion (CDC, 2016; SAMHSA, 2016). After a review of the evidence, the FDA concluded that physicians need training in evidence-based opioid prescribing and provided an outline for the content of the training needed (FDA, 2017). Providing training in opioid prescribing that emphasized the more challenging aspects of opioid prescribing while following the recommended training outline, will help physicians improve patient outcomes (CASA, 2005).

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Based on an extensive review of evidence and expert consensus, the FDA determined that all health care providers involved in pain management need training in safe opioid prescribing (FDA, 2017). Patients having opioid addiction or misuse are frequently encountered in primary care due to the alarming extent of the opioid epidemic: 11.8 million people aged 12 or older misuse of pain relievers (SAMHSA, 2016). Rates of overdose, diversion, and addiction rose in parallel with prescribing rates, suggesting that opioid prescribing is a contributing factor. Provider training in the fundamental opioid prescribing skills will help patients who misuse opioids (CASA, 2005).

Practice Gap References

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Yudko E, Lozhkina O, Fouts A, et al. A comprehensive review of the psychometric properties of the drug abuse screening test. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2007; 32(2): 189-198. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17306727

Approximately 20 to 25% of primary care patients are likely to have a current substance use problem or health problem related to tobacco, alcohol, or drug use (Madras et al., 2009; Pilowsky & Wu, 2012). Screening, brief interventions, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) provided to all patients is effective in reducing alcohol, drug, and tobacco use (Agerwala & McCance-Katz, 2012; Pilowsky & Wu, 2012). Brief intervention in primary care is an effective and cost-efficient approach to reduce patients’ alcohol use (Seale et al., 2010; Madras et al., 2009). SBIRT was originally designed for patients with alcohol and tobacco use, but there is growing evidence that brief interventions for illicit drug use also leads to positive patient outcomes (Compton, 2009). Motivational interviewing is a set of structured counseling skills that has been shown to be one of the most effective means of motivating patients to change addictive behavior (Miller and Rollnick, 2012) and has been used successfully in primary care settings as the brief intervention phase of addiction treatment (Rahm et al., 2014).

Unfortunately, PCPs screen less than half of their patients for tobacco use and less than a third for alcohol use (Roche & Freeman, 2004; Seale et al., 2010). Brief interventions happen even less often than screening (NDCP, 2008). In patients who screened positive for substance use, less than 75% received a brief intervention. A lack of adequate training is the most frequently reported barrier to screening and brief intervention (Le et al., 2015). Appropriate follow-up is also happening less often as well (D’Amico et al., 2005). Only 48% of people with excessive alcohol use reported receiving follow-up, with most simply being told to “stop drinking”. There is also a practice gap in referral to treatment. Less than one-fifth of PCPs make a referral after screening positively for substance abuse or risky substance use (Madras et al., 2009). Primary care physicians need to understand the different types of specialty treatment so that they can make appropriate referrals for their substance abuse patients (SAMHSA, 1997).

Practice Gap References

Agerwala SM, McCance-Katz EF. Integrating screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) into clinical practice settings: A brief review. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 2012; 44: 307-317. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3801194/ Accessed on: 2017-07-26.

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (CSAT), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). TIP 24: A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary Care Clinicians. Rockville, MD. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. 1997. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64827/ Accessed on: 2010-06-15.

Compton P. Urine toxicology screening: a case study. Emerging Solutions in Pain. 2009.

D’Amico EJ, Paddock SM, Burnam A, Kung FY. Identification of and guidance for problem drinking by general medical providers: results from a national survey. Medical Care. 2005; 43(3): 229-236. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15725979 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Le KB, Johnson AJ, Seale JP, Woodall H, Clark DC, Parish DC, Miller DP. Primary care residents lack comfort and experience with alcohol screening and brief intervention: A multi-site survey. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2015; 30: 790-796. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25666210 Accessed on: 2015-06-19.

Madras BK, Compton WM, Avula D, et al. Screening, brief interventions, referral to treatment (SBIRT) for illicit drug and alcohol use at multiple healthcare sites. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 99: 280-295. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2760304/ Accessed on: 2011-03-24.

Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. The Guilford Press. 2013. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/Motivational-Interviewing-Third-Edition-Applications/dp/1609182278 Accessed on: 2014-10-10.

Office of National Drug Control Policy. Screen & brief intervention. . 2008. Available at: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ondcp/screen_brief_intv.pdf Accessed on: 2015-06-18.

Pilowsky DJ, Wu LT. Screening for alcohol and drug use disorders among adults in primary care: a review. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2012; 3: 25-34. Available at: https://www.dovepress.com/screening-for-alcohol-and-drug-use-disorders-among-adults-in-primary-c-peer-reviewed-article-SAR Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

Rahm AK, Boggs JM , Martin C, et al.. Facilitators and barriers to implementing SBIRT in primary care in integrated health care settings . Subst Abus. 2014. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25127073 Accessed on: 2015-05-27.

Roche AM, Freeman T. Brief interventions: good in theory but weak in practice. Drug and Alcohol Review. 2004; 23(1): 11-18. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14965883 Accessed on: 2013-10-24.

Seale JP, Shellenberger S, Velzsquez MM, Boltri JM, Okosun I, Guyinn M, Vinson D, Cornelius M, Johnson JA. Impact of vital signs screening and clinician prompting on alcohol and tobacco screening and intervention rates: a pre-post intervention comparison. BMC Fam Pract. 2010; 11:18: . Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20205740 Accessed on: 2014-07-28.

Chronic pain is common, affecting a substantial number of people. For example, the National Health Interview from 2016 found that approximately 18% of adults have pain most days or every day, as well as an estimated 42% of adults have pain some days, indicating a high need for pain management (CDC, 2017). Common musculoskeletal pain conditions, such as arthritis, back problems, or frequent and severe headaches, affect around 43% of U.S. adults (Tsang et al., 2008).

Clinical guidelines for the use of chronic opioid therapy in chronic noncancer pain to reduce risk of addiction, other substance misuse, and overdose were developed by the American Pain Society and the American Academy of Pain Medicine, based on an extensive review of the literature by a multidisciplinary panel (Chou et al., 2009). More recent evidence-based guidelines by the CDC on opioid prescribing were even stronger in a number of these recommendations, such as recommending urine drug testing at baseline and periodically during chronic opioid therapy as well as checking prescription drug monitoring data bases regularly (Dowell, et al., 2016).

An opioid misuse epidemic continues: 12.5 million Americans or 4.7% of the American population age twelve or older reported misuse of pain relievers in the past year, with misuse defined as meaning use other than as recommended by a doctor (Hughes et al., 2016). Of those people, only 63% said that their opioid misuse was to relieve pain. Another part of the problem is that the rate of overdose deaths is steadily increasing. In 2015, over 22,000 deaths involved prescription opioids, an increase from 19,000 in 2014, which is nearly a 16% increase (CDC, 2016).

Despite these problems and the guidelines which recommend only 3 day initial prescriptions when opioids are needed to manage pain, providers continue to prescribe opioids at a high rate, enough for a bottle for everyone in the U.S. per year (Dowell, et al., 2016). According to national surveys, physicians do not follow key elements of the plan recommended by evidence-based opioid prescribing guidelines including screening for risk of addiction/misuse, assessing substance misuse, communicating effectively about opioid use and risks, and reducing the risk of prescriptions drug overdose and persion (CASA, July 2005, p. 53, p. 54, p. 7; Adams, et al. 2001).

On the other hand, pain is not recognized or adequately treated in other instances, especially for members of racial and ethnic minority groups, women, elderly, people with cognitive impairment, cancer pain, and end of life pain (Dowell, et al., 2016). Chronic pain, especially when inadequately treated, diminishes the quality of life.

The need for education/skills training in order to be able to follow the guidelines in pain management and safe opioid prescribing is evident from national physician surveys (CASA, July 2005, pp. 6, 90-91; CASA, April 2000, p. ii; Morley-Forster, et al. 2003). Based on the overall results of their physician survey on the problem of drug persion, CASA concluded that physicians should receive more continuing medical education related to prescribing and administering controlled substances and identifying, diagnosing, and treating substance misuse and addiction (CASA, July 2005, p. 100).

Practice Gap References

Adams NJ, Plane MB, Fleming MF, et al. Opioids and the Treatment of Chronic Pain in a Primary Care Sample. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2001; 22: 791-796. Accessed on: 2015-09-21.

Califano, JA et al. Under the Counter: The persion and Abuse of Controlled Prescription Drugs in the U.S. The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University. 2005. Available at: http://www.centeronaddiction.org/addiction-research/reports/under-the-counter-persion-abuse-controlled-perscription-drugs Accessed on: 2013-09-13.

CDC. Opioid Data Analysis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2016. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/analysis.html Accessed on: 2017-03-27.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. QuickStats: Age-Adjusted Percentage of Adults Aged ≥18 Years Who Were Never in Pain, in Pain Some Days, or in Pain Most Days or Every Day in the Past 6 Months, by Employment Status — National Health Interview Survey, United States, 2016. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report . 2017; 66: 796. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/66/wr/mm6629a8.htm?s_cid=mm6629a8_e Accessed on: 2017-08-01.

Chou R, Fanciullo G, Fine P, et al. Clinical guidelines for the use of chronic opioid therapy in chronic noncancer pain. J Pain. 2009; 10(2): 113-130. Available at: http://www.jpain.org/article/S1526-5900(08)00831-6/abstract

Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain — United States, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016; ePub: March 2016: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1er. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/rr/rr6501e1.htm Accessed on: 2016-03-16.

Hughes A, Williams MR, Lipari RN, et al. Prescription Drug Use and Misuse in the United States: Results from the 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. SAMHSA. 2016. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-FFR2-2015/NSDUH-FFR2-2015.htm Accessed on: 2016-09-13.

Morley-Forster PK, Clark AJ, Speechley M, et al. Attitudes Toward Opioid Use for Chronic Pain: A Canadian Physician Survey. Pain Res Manage. 2003; 8: 189-94. Accessed on: 2015-09-21.

Nahin RL. Estimates of pain prevalence and severity in adults: United States, 2012. J Pain. 2015; 16(8): . Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26028573 Accessed on: 2017-03-27.

The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (CASA). Missed Opportunity: National Survey of Primary Care Physicians and Patients on Substance Abuse. The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University, Survey Research Laboratory. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois at Chicago. 2000. Available at: http://www.centeronaddiction.org/addiction-research/reports/national-survey-primary-care-physicians-patients-substance-abuse Accessed on: 2014-04-28.

Tsang A, Von Korf M, Lee S, et al. Common chronic pain conditions in developed and developing. J Pain. 2008; 9(10): 883-91. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18602869 Accessed on: 2017-03-27.